New algorithm for initial and subsequent therapy of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common respiratory disease, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In recent years, new approaches to the epidemiology, diagnosis, classification (categorization), phenotype assessment, and characterization and severity of exacerbations of COPD have emerged. Modern approaches to initial and subsequent drug therapy have changed significantly. This is largely due to the results of large studies conducted in recent years, demonstrating the high efficacy of triple fixed-dose combinations including inhaled glucocorticosteroids, long-acting β-agonists, and long-acting anticholinergics.

The aim  of this review was to highlight the latest advances in COPD treatment, taking into account the nuances of the pathophysiology of its subtypes, which will be crucial for reducing the symptoms of the disease. Due to the emergence of new drugs, there was a need to modify domestic algorithms for managing patients with COPD.

Methods. For the first time, the biological agent dupilumab has been included in clinical guidelines; it is indicated for patients with COPD with signs of type 2 inflammation and symptoms of chronic bronchitis. The use of non-pharmacological therapies (smoking cessation, physical activity, and respiratory rehabilitation) and modern approaches to treating respiratory failure remain important.

Conclusion. New additions to clinical guidelines emphasize the importance of early intervention, personalized treatment, and the diversity of COPD phenotypes, and also lay the foundation for a more effective and individualized COPD treatment model. The ability to control inflammation and improve lung function in COPD patients using modern therapeutic approaches can not only improve quality of life for patients but also potentially reduce the overall burden on the healthcare system.

1. Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease (GOLD). Report 2026. Available at: https://goldcopd.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/GOLD-REPORT-2026-v1.3-8Dec2025_WMV.pdf

2. Chuchalin A.G., Avdeev S.N., Aisanov Z.R. et al. [Federal guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Pul'monologiya. 2022; 32 (3): 356–392. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2022-32-3-356-392 (in Russian).

3. Avdeev S.N., Leshchenko I.V., Aisanov Z.R. [Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD 2024). Clinical guidelines (short version)]. Respiratornaya meditsina. 2025; 1 (2): 5–16. DOI: 10.17116/respmed202510215 (in Russian).

4. Athanazio R.A., Bernal Villada L., Avdeev S.N. et al. Rate of severe exacerbations, healthcare resource utilisation and clinical outcomes in patients with COPD in low-income and middle-income countries: results from the EXACOS International Study. BMJ Open Respir. Res. 2024; 11 (1): e002101. DOI: 10.1136/bmjresp-2023-002101.

5. Avdeev S.N., Leshchenko I.V., Ignatova G.V. et al. [The burden of severe exacerbations, their relationship to clinical outcomes and the use of health resources in the Russian population of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a subanalysis of the Russian population of EXACOS International Study]. Pul'monologiya. 2024; 34 (3): 427–440. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2024-34-3-427-440 (in Russian).

6. Arkhipov V.V., Avdeev S.N., Trofimov V.I. et al. [Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and its treatment in the Russian Federation: Results of a cross-sectional assessment from the CORSAIR observational study]. Pul'monologiya. 2024; 34 (5): 676–687. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2024-34-5-676-687 (in Russian).

7. MacLeod M., Papi A., Contoli M. et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation fundamentals: Diagnosis, treatment, prevention and disease impact. Respirology. 2021; 26 (6): 532–551. DOI: 10.1111/resp.14041.

8. Celli B.R., Fabbri L.M., Aaron S.D. et al. An updated definition and severity classification of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations: the Rome proposal. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2021; 204 (11): 1251–1258. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202108-1819PP.

9. Avdeev S.N., Truschenko N.V., Gaynitdinova V.V. et al. [Treatment of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Terapevticheskiy arkhiv. 2018; 90 (12): 68–75. DOI: 10.26442/00403660.2018.12.000011 (in Russian).

10. Gale C.P., Hurst J.R., Hawkins N.M. et al. Identification and management of cardiopulmonary risk in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a multidisciplinary consensus and modified Delphi study. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2025; 32 (15): 1445–1460. DOI: 10.1093/eurjpc/zwaf119.

11. GBD 2021 Causes of Death Collaborators. Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet. 2024; 403 (10440): 2100–2132. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)00367-2.

12. Drapkina O.M., Kontsevaya A.V., Mukaneeva D.K. et al. [Forecast of the socioeconomic burden of COPD in the Russian Federation in 2022]. Pul'monologiya. 2022; 32 (4): 507–516. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2022-32-4-507-516 (in Russian).

13. Aisanov Z., Avdeev S., Arkhipov V. et al. Russian guidelines for the management of COPD: algorithm of pharmacologic treatment. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2018; 13: 183–187. DOI: 10.2147/copd.s153770.

14. Avdeev S.N., Leshchenko I.V., Aisanov Z.R. [New concept and algorithm for the management of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Pul'monologiya. 2023; 33 (5): 587–594. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2023-33-5-587-594 (in Russian).

15. Avdeev S.N., Leshchenko I.V., Aisanov Z.R. et al. [New clinical guidelines for COPD – a paradigm shift: a review]. Terapevticheskiy arkhiv. 2024; 96 (3): 292–297. DOI: 10.26442/00403660.2024.03.202646 (in Russian).

16. Budnevsky A.V., Avdeev S.N., Ovsyannikov E.S., Feigelman S.N. [“COPD Navigator” – an innovative tool for doctor and patient]. Pul'monologiya. 2025; 35 (1): 86–94. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2025-35-1-86-94 (in Russian).

17. Ward T.J.C., Latimer L., Daynes E. et al. Impact of pulmonary rehabilitation programme design on effectiveness in COPD: a systematic review and component network meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine. 2025; 87: 103433. DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2025.103433.

18. Hanrahan C., Broderick J., O'Connor T.M., McVeigh J.G. Behaviour change interventions for physical activity in adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir. Med. Res. 2024; 85: 101068. DOI: 10.1016/j.resmer.2023.101068.

19. Ignatova G.L., Avdeev S.N., Antonov V.N. Comparative effectiveness of pneumococcal vaccination with PPV23 and PCV13 in COPD patients over a 5-year follow-up cohort study. Sci. Rep. 2021; 11 (1): 15948. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95129-w.

20. Ignatova G.L., Avdeev S.N., Antonov V.N. et al. 10-year effects of the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and stable angina pectoris. Vaccines (Basel). 2025; 13 (10): 1000. DOI: 10.3390/vaccines13101000.

21. Ignatova G.L., Avdeev S.N., Antonov V.N., Blinova E.V. [The quality of life indicators in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease after PCV vaccination: a posteriori analysis of 10-year follow-up]. Meditsinskiy sovet. 2025; 19 (9): 44–49. DOI: 10.21518/ms2025-190 (in Russian).

22. Avdeev S.N., Alyeva M.H., Baranov A.A. et al. [Federal clinical guidelines on vaccination of pneumococcal infection in children and adults]. Profilakticheskaya meditsina. 2023; 26 (9‑2): 3–23. DOI: 10.17116/profmed2023260923 (in Russian).

23. Drapkina O.M., Briko N.I., Namazova-Baranova L.S. et al. [Immunoprophylaxis: Guidelines (second edition)]. Pervichnaya mediko-sanitarnaya pomoshh'. 2025; 2 (3): 135–262. DOI: 10.15829/3034-4123-2025-76 (in Russian).

24. Tashkin D.P., Cooper C.B. The role of long-acting bronchodilators in the management of stable COPD. Chest. 2004; 125 (1): 249–259. DOI: 10.1378/chest.125.1.249.

25. Anzueto A., Miravitlles M. The role of fixed-dose dual bronchodilator therapy in treating COPD. Am. J. Med. 2018; 131 (6): 608–622. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2017.12.018.

26. Trushenko N.V., Avdeev S.N., Nuralieva G.S. et al. [The effect of dual bronchodilatory therapy on the clinical control of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in real clinical practice]. Pul'monologiya. 2021; 31 (2): 216–224. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2021-31-2-216-224 (in Russian).

27. Calzetta L., Rogliani P., Matera M.G., Cazzola M. A systematic review with meta-analysis of dual bronchodilation with LAMA/LABA for the treatment of stable OPD. Chest. 2016; 149 (5): 1181–1196. DOI: 10.1016/j.chest.2016.02.646.

28. Miravitlles M., García-Rivero J.L., Ribera X. et al. Exercise capacity and physical activity in COPD patients treated with a LAMA/LABA combination: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir. Res. 2022; 23 (1): 347. DOI: 10.1186/s12931-022-02268-3.

29. Avdeev S.N., Trushenko N.V., Merzhoeva Z.M. et al. [Eosinophilic inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Terapevticheskiy arkhiv. 2019; 91 (10): 144–152. DOI: 10.26442/00403660.2019.10.000426 (in Russian).

30. Pavord I.D., Lettis S., Locantore N. et al. Blood eosinophils and inhaled corticosteroid/long-acting-2 agonist efficacy in COPD. Thorax. 2016; 71 (2): 118–125. DOI: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2015-207021.

31. Golpe R., Dacal D., Sanjuán-López P. et al. Plasma eosinophil count and patient-centered events in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in real-life clinical practice. Arch. Bronconeumol. (Eng. Ed.). 2020; 56 (2): 129–30. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2019.09.015.

32. Decramer M.L., Chapman K.R., Dahl R. et al. Once-daily indacaterol versus tiotropium for patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (INVIGORATE): a randomised, blinded, parallel-group study. Lancet Respir. Med. 2013; 1 (7): 524–533. DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(13)70158-9.

33. Donohue J.F., Singh D., Munzu C. et al. Magnitude of umeclidinium/vilanterol lung function effect depends on monotherapy responses: results from two randomised controlled trials. Respir. Med. 2016; 112: 65–74. DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2016.01.001.

34. Casanova C., Celli B.R., de-Torres J.P. et al. Prevalence of persistent blood eosinophilia: relation to outcomes inpatients with COPD. Eur. Respir. J. 2017; 50 (5): 1701162. DOI: 10.1183/13993003.01162-2017.

35. Miravitlles M., Monteagudo M., Solntseva I., Alcázar B. Blood eosinophil counts and their variability and risk of exacerbations in COPD: a population-based study. Arch. Bronconeumol. (Engl. Ed.). 2021; 57 (1): 13–20. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2019.12.015.

36. Lipson D.A., Barnhart F., Brealey N. et al. Once-daily single-inhaler triple versus dual therapy in patients with COPD. N. Engl. J. Med. 2018; 378 (18): 1671–1680. DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1713901.

37. Rabe K.F., Martinez F.J., Ferguson G.T. et al. Triple inhaled therapy at two glucocorticoid doses in moderate-to-very-severe COPD. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020; 383: 35–48. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1916046.

38. Singh D., Papi A., Corradi M. et al. Single inhaler triple therapy versus inhaled corticosteroid plus long-acting β2-agonist therapy for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (TRILOGY): a double-blind, parallel group, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016; 388 (10048): 963–973. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31354-x.

39. Papi A., Vestbo J., Fabbri L. et al. Extrafine inhaled triple therapy versus dual bronchodilator therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (TRIBUTE): a double-blind, parallel group, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2018; 391 (10125): 1076–1084. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(18)30206-x.

40. Martinez F.J., Ferguson G.T., Bourne E. et al. Budesonide/glycopyrrolate/formoterol fumarate metered dose inhaler improves exacerbation outcomes in patients with COPD without a recent exacerbation history: a subgroup analysis of KRONOS. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2021; 16: 179–189. DOI: 10.2147/COPD.S286087.

41. Singh D., Martinez F.J., Hurst J.R. et al. Effect of triple therapy on cardiovascular and severe cardiopulmonary events in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a post hoc analysis of a randomized, double-blind, phase 3 clinical trial (ETHOS). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2025; 211 (2): 205–214. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202312-2311OC.

42. Avdeev S.N., Leshchenko I.V., Boldina M.V. et al. [Clinical and patient-reported outcomes of triple therapy (budesonide/glycopyrronium bromide/formoterol) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: results of the observational MINERVA study]. Respiratornaya meditsina. 2025; 1 (3): 19–26. DOI: 10.17116/respmed2025103119 (in Russian).

43. Pascoe S., Barnes N., Brusselle G. et al. Blood eosinophils and treatment response with triple and dual combinationtherapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: analysis of the IMPACT trial. Lancet Respir. Med. 2019; 7 (9): 745–756. DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(19)30190-0.

44. Miravitlles M., Calle M., Molina J. et al. Update 2025 of the Spanish COPD guidelines (GesEPOC): pharmacological treatment of stable COPD. Arch. Bronconeumol. 2025; 61 (12): 766–782. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2025.10.008.

45. Pavord I.D., Lettis S., Anzueto A., Barnes N. Blood eosinophil count and pneumonia risk in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a patient-level meta-analysis. Lancet Respir. Med. 2016; 4 (9): 731–741. DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(16)30148-5.

46. Bafadhel M., Rabe K.F., Martinez F.J. et al. Benefits ofbudesonide/glycopyrronium/formoterol fumarate dihydrate on COPD exacerbations, lung function symptoms, and quality of life across blood eosinophil ranges: a post-hoc analysis of data from ETHOS. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2022; 17: 3061–3073. DOI: 10.2147/copd.s374670.

47. Avdeev S., Aisanov Z., Arkhipov V. et al. Withdrawal of inhaled corticosteroids in COPD patients: rationale and algorithms. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2019; 14: 1267–1280. DOI: 10.2147/COPD.S207775.

48. Adams S.G., Anzueto A., Briggs D.D. Jr. et al. Evaluation of withdrawal of maintenance tiotropium in COPD. Respir. Med. 2009; 103 (10): 1415–1420. DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2009.05.018.

49. Li C., Zhou Y., Liu S. et al. Tiotropium discontinuation in patients with early-stage COPD: a prospective observational cohort study. ERJ Open. Res. 2019; 5 (1): 00175–2018. DOI: 10.1183/23120541.00175-2018

50. Miravitlles M., Auladell-Rispau A., Monteagudo M. et al. Systematic review on long-term adverse effects of inhaled corticosteroids in the treatment of COPD. Eur. Respir. Rev. 2021; 30 (160): 210075. DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0075-2021.

51. Alcázar-Navarrete B., García-Rio F., Sánchez G. et al. Burden of disease among exacerbating patients with COPD treated with triple therapy in Spain. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2021; 16: 2149–2161. DOI: 10.2147/copd.s310319.

52. Chen S., Miravitlles M., Rhee C.K. et al. Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and evidence of eosinophilic inflammation experience exacerbations despite receiving maximal inhaled maintenance therapy. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2022; 17: 2187–2200. DOI: 10.2147/copd.s378649.

53. Wechsler M.E., Wells J.M. What every clinician should know about inflammation in COPD. ERJ Open. Res. 2024; 10 (5): 00177-2024. DOI: 10.1183/23120541.00177-2024.

54. Kersul A.L., Cosio B.G. Biologics in COPD. Open Respir. Arch. 2024; 6 (2): 100306. DOI: 10.1016/j.opresp.2024.100306.

55. Trushenko N.V., Lavginova B.B., Belkina O.S., Avdeev S.N. [Targeted therapy as a new perspective in the treatment of COPD]. Meditsinskiy sovet. 2024; 18 (20): 10–16. DOI: 10.21518/ms2024-519 (in Russian).

56. Bhatt S.P., Rabe K.F., Hanania N.A. et al. Dupilumab for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with type 2 inflammation: a pooled analysis of two phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Lancet Respir. Med. 2025; 13 (3): 234–243. DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(24)00409-0.

57. Singh D., Menéndez Lobo A., Higham A., Alcázar Navarrete B. Biological therapy in COPD management: current evidence, challenges and opportunities. Arch. Bronconeumol. 2025; 61 (11): 690–696. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2025.07.017.

58. Burgel P.R., Nesme-Meyer P., Chanez P. et al. Cough and sputum production are associated with frequent exacerbations and hospitalizations in COPD subjects. Chest. 2009; 135 (4): 975–982. DOI: 10.1378/chest.08-2062.

59. Kim V., Zhao H., Boriek A.M. et al. Persistent and newly developed chronic bronchitis are associated with worse outcomes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2016; 13 (7): 1016–1025. DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.201512-800oc.

60. Zheng J.P., Kang J., Huang S.Q. et al. Effect of carbocisteine on acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (PEACE Study): a randomised placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2008; 371 (9629): 2013–2018. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60869-7.

61. Zheng J.P., Wen F.Q., Bai C.X. et al. Twice daily N-acetylcysteine 600 mg for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (PANTHEON): a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir. Med. 2014; 2 (3): 187–194. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-2600(13)70286-8.

62. Dal Negro R.W., Wedzicha J.A., Iversen M. et al. Effect of erdosteine on the rate and duration of COPD exacerbations: the RESTORE study. Eur. Respir. J. 2017; 50 (4): 1700711. DOI: 10.1183/13993003.00711-2017.

63. Avdeev S.N., Trushenko N.V., Chikina S.Yu., Suvorova O.A. [The potential of erdosteine to reduce the rate of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Pul'monologiya. 2022; 32 (2): 253–259. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2022-32-2-253-259 (in Russian).

64. Fabbri L.M., Calverley P.M.A., Izquierdo-Alonso J.L. et al. Roflumilast in moderate-to-severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease treated with long acting bronchodilators: two randomized clinical trials. Lancet. 2009; 374 (9691): 695–703. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61252-6.

65. Martinez F.J., Rabe K.F., Sethi S. et al. Effectof roflumilast and inhaled corticosteroid/long-actin-2-agonist on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations (RE(2)SPOND). A randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2016; 194 (5): 559–567. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201607-1349oc.

66. Polverino E., De Soyza A., Dimakou K. et al. The association between bronchiectasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: data from the European Bronchiectasis Registry (EMBARC). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2024; 210 (1): 119–127. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202309-1614OC.

67. Martínez-García M.A., de la Rosa Carrillo D., Soler-Cataluna J.J. et al. Prognostic value of bronchiectasis in patients with moderate-to-severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit .Care Med. 2013; 187 (8): 823–831. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201208-1518oc.

68. Pan C.X., He Z.F., Lin S.Z. et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of the phenotypes of COPD-bronchiectasis association. Arch. Bronconeumol. 2024; 60 (6): 356–363. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2024.04.003.

69. Chen Y.F., Chang C.L., Hou H.H. et al. The impact of COPD-bronchiectasis association on clinical outcomes: insights from East Asian cohorts validating the ROSE criteria. ERJ Open. Res. 2025; 11 (2): 00626-2024. DOI: 10.1183/23120541.00626-2024.

70. Chalmers J.D., Haworth C.S., Flume P. et al. European Respiratory Society clinical practice guideline for the management of adult bronchiectasis. Eur. Respir. J. 2025; 66 (6): 2501126. DOI: 10.1183/13993003.01126-2025.

71. de la Rosa Carrillo D., López-Campos J.L., Alcázar Navarrete B. et al. Consensus document on the diagnosis and treatment of chronic bronchial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch. Bronconeumol. (Engl. Ed.). 2020; 56 (10): 651–664. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2020.04.023.

72. López-Campos J.L., Miravitlles M., De la Rosa Carrillo D. et al. Current challenges in chronic bronchial infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Clin. Med. 2020; 9 (6): E1639. DOI: 10.3390/jcm9061639.

73. Uzun S., Djamin R.S., Kluytmans J.A. et al. Azithromycin maintenance treatment in patients with frequent exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COLUMBUS): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir. Med. 2014; 2 (5): 361–368. DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(14)70019-0.

74. Albert R.K., Connett J., Biley W.C. et al. Azithromycin for prevention of exacerbations of COPD. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011; 365 (8): 689–698. DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1104623.

75. Montón C., Prina E., Pomares X. et al. Nebulized colistin and continuous cyclic azithromycin in severe COPD patients with chronic bronchial infection due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a retrospective cohort study. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2019; 14: 2365–2373. DOI: 10.2147/copd.s209513.

76. Costa R., Navarro A., Leal M.Á. et al. Tolerance and effectiveness of inhaled antibiotics at standard or low doses in COPD patients with chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa bronchial infection. Sci. Rep. 2025; 15 (1): 8773. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-91763-w.

77. Cranston J.M., Crockett A.J., Moss J.R., Alpers J.H. Domiciliary oxygen for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2005; 2005 (4): CD001744. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001744.pub2.

78. Nuralieva G.S., Shmidt A.E., Nekludova G.V. et al. [Long-term oxygen therapy for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: results from an observational cohort study]. Meditsinskiy sovet. 2023; 17 (13): 86–94. DOI: 10.21518/ms2023-174 (in Russian).

79. Nuralieva G.S., Shmidt A.E., Avdeev I.S., Nekludova G.V. [Long-term oxygen treatment in chronic respiratory failure]. Meditsinskiy sovet. 2024; 18 (20): 92–99. DOI: 10.21518/ms2024-477 (in Russian).

80. Avdeev S.N. [Non invasive ventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in a hospital and at home]. Pul'monologiya. 2017; 27 (2): 232–249. DOI: 10.18093/0869-0189-2017-27-2-232-249 (in Russian).

81. Avdeev S.N., Nevzorova D.N., Ivanova G.E. et al. [Respiratory support and oxygen therapy at home: clinical results of the prospective observatory study]. Meditsinskiy sovet. 2024; 18 (20): 70–81. DOI: 10.21518/ms2024-419 (in Russian).

82. Köhnlein T., Windisch W., Köhler D. et al. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation for the treatment of severe stablechronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a prospective, multicentre, ran-domised, controlled clinical trial. Lancet Respir. Med. 2014; 2 (9): 698–705. DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(14)70153-5.

83. Murphy P.B., Rehal S., Arbane G. et al. Effect of home noninvasive ventilation with oxygen therapy vs oxygen therapy alone on hospital readmission or death after an acute COPD exacerbation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2017; 317 (21): 2177–2186. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2017.4451.

84. Nagata K., Horie T., Chohnabayashi N. et al. Home high-flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy for stable hypercapnic COPD: a randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2022; 206 (11): 1326–1335. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202201-0199OC.

85. Avdeev S.N., Nuralieva G.S. [High-flow nasal cannula therapy in patients with COPD]. Respiratornaya meditsina. 2025; 1 (2): 17–38. DOI: 10.17116/respmed2025102117 (in Russian).