pulmoПульмонологияPULMONOLOGIYA0869-01892541-9617Scientific and Practical Journal “PULMONOLOGIYA” LLC10.18093/0869-0189-2013-0-4-102-108pulmo-261Research ArticleОБЗОРЫREVIEWПолитика рациональной антибактериальной терапии обострения хронической обструктивной болезни легких: подход, основанный на минимизации риска параллельного ущербаStrategy of rational antibacterial therapy of acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: an approach based on minimal hazard riskГучевИ. А.GuchevI. A.

к. м. н., начальник терапевтического отделения филиала № 4 

214012, Смоленск, ул. Фрунзе, 35. Тел.: (4812) 27-09-96.

iguchev@gmail.comСидоренкоС. В.SidorenkoS. V.

д. м. н., руководитель отдела молекулярной микробиологии и эпидемиологии, профессор кафедры медицинской микробиологии

197022, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Профессора Попова, 9

niidi@niidi.ruФГКУ "1586 Военный клинический госпиталь Западного военного округа" МО РФRussian FederationФГБУ "НИИ детских инфекций" ФМБА; Северо-западный государственный медицинский университетRussian Federation20132808201304102108Copyright © Гучев И.А., Сидоренко С.В., 20132013Гучев И.А., Сидоренко С.В.Guchev I.A., Sidorenko S.V.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://journal.pulmonology.ru/pulm/article/view/261

Политика рациональной антибактериальной терапии обострения хронической обструктивной болезни легких: подход, основанный на минимизации риска параллельного ущерба.

Strategy of rational antibacterial therapy of acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: an approach based on minimal hazard risk.

хроническая обструктивная болезнь легкихамоксициллинцефиксимкардиотоксичностьсопутствующий ущербchronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseamoxicillincefiximecardiotoxicityconcomitant hazardsReferencesLopez A.D., Shibuya K., Rao C. et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: current burden and future projections. Eur. Respir. J. 2006; 27: 397–412.Lopez A.D., Shibuya K., Rao C. et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: current burden and future projections. Eur. Respir. J. 2006; 27: 397–412.Mathers C.D., Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. 2006; 3: e442.Mathers C.D., Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. 2006; 3: e442.World Bank / WHO Global Burden of Disease Study. Avail able from URL: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index.html. Last access 2013-10-01.World Bank / WHO Global Burden of Disease Study. Avail able from URL: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index.html. Last access 2013-10-01.European Respiratory Society. European Lung White Book: Huddersfield. Eur. Respir. Soc. J. Ltd; 2003.European Respiratory Society. European Lung White Book: Huddersfield. Eur. Respir. Soc. J. Ltd; 2003.Vestbo J., Hurd S.S., Agusti A.G. et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2013; 187: 347–365.Vestbo J., Hurd S.S., Agusti A.G. et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2013; 187: 347–365.Papaioannou A.I., Bartziokas K., Tsikrika S. et al. The impact of depressive symptoms on recovery and outcome of hospitalised COPD exacerbations. Eur. Respir. J. 2013; 41: 815–823.Papaioannou A.I., Bartziokas K., Tsikrika S. et al. The impact of depressive symptoms on recovery and outcome of hospitalised COPD exacerbations. Eur. Respir. J. 2013; 41: 815–823.Atlantis E., Fahey P., Cochrane B. et al. Bidirectional associations between clinically relevant depression or anxiety and COPD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest 2013; 144: 766–777.Atlantis E., Fahey P., Cochrane B. et al. Bidirectional associations between clinically relevant depression or anxiety and COPD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest 2013; 144: 766–777.Motegi T., Jones R.C., Ishii T. et al. A comparison of three multidimensional indices of COPD severity as predictors of future exacerbations. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulm. Dis. 2013; 8: 259–271.Motegi T., Jones R.C., Ishii T. et al. A comparison of three multidimensional indices of COPD severity as predictors of future exacerbations. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulm. Dis. 2013; 8: 259–271.Pauwels R.A. National and international guidelines for COPD: the need for evidence. Chest 2000; 117: 20S–22S.Pauwels R.A. National and international guidelines for COPD: the need for evidence. Chest 2000; 117: 20S–22S.Sethi S. Infection as a comorbidity of COPD. Eur. Respir. J. 2010; 35: 1209–1215Sethi S. Infection as a comorbidity of COPD. Eur. Respir. J. 2010; 35: 1209–1215Patel I.S., Seemungal T.A., Wilks M. et al. Relationship between bacterial colonisation and the frequency, character, and severity of COPD exacerbations. Thorax 2002; 57: 759–764.Patel I.S., Seemungal T.A., Wilks M. et al. Relationship between bacterial colonisation and the frequency, character, and severity of COPD exacerbations. Thorax 2002; 57: 759–764.Sethi S., Evans N., Grant B.J. et al. New strains of bacteria and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002; 347: 465–471.Sethi S., Evans N., Grant B.J. et al. New strains of bacteria and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002; 347: 465–471.Sethi S., Wrona C., Eschberger K. et al. Inflammatory profile of new bacterial strain exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008; 177: 491–497.Sethi S., Wrona C., Eschberger K. et al. Inflammatory profile of new bacterial strain exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008; 177: 491–497.Sethi S., Murphy T.F. Infection in the pathogenesis and course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008; 359: 2355–2365.Sethi S., Murphy T.F. Infection in the pathogenesis and course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008; 359: 2355–2365.Burge S., Wedzicha J.A. COPD exacerbations: definitions and classifications. Eur. Respir. J. Suppl. 2003; 41: 46s–53s.Burge S., Wedzicha J.A. COPD exacerbations: definitions and classifications. Eur. Respir. J. Suppl. 2003; 41: 46s–53s.Rodriguez3Roisin R. Toward a consensus definition for COPD exacerbations. Chest 2000; 117: 398S–401S.Rodriguez3Roisin R. Toward a consensus definition for COPD exacerbations. Chest 2000; 117: 398S–401S.Soyseth V., Bhatnagar R., Holmedahl N.H. et al. Acute exacerbation of COPD is associated with fourfold elevation of cardiac troponin T. Heart 2013; 99: 122–126.Soyseth V., Bhatnagar R., Holmedahl N.H. et al. Acute exacerbation of COPD is associated with fourfold elevation of cardiac troponin T. Heart 2013; 99: 122–126.Maclay J.D., MacNee W. Cardiovascular disease in COPD: mechanisms. Chest 2013; 143: 798–807.Maclay J.D., MacNee W. Cardiovascular disease in COPD: mechanisms. Chest 2013; 143: 798–807.Houghton A.M. Mechanistic links between COPD and lung cancer. Nature Rev. Cancer 2013; 13: 233–245.Houghton A.M. Mechanistic links between COPD and lung cancer. Nature Rev. Cancer 2013; 13: 233–245.McGarvey L.P., Magder S., Burkhart D. et al. Cause-specific mortality adjudication in the UPLIFT(R) COPD trial: findings and recommendations. Respir. Med. 2012; 106: 515–521.McGarvey L.P., Magder S., Burkhart D. et al. Cause-specific mortality adjudication in the UPLIFT(R) COPD trial: findings and recommendations. Respir. Med. 2012; 106: 515–521.Connors A.F. Jr, Dawson N.V., Thomas C. et al. Outcomes following acute exacerbation of severe chronic obstructive lung disease. The SUPPORT investigators (Study to understand prognoses and preferences for outcomes and risks of treatments). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1996; 154: 959–967.Connors A.F. Jr, Dawson N.V., Thomas C. et al. Outcomes following acute exacerbation of severe chronic obstructive lung disease. The SUPPORT investigators (Study to understand prognoses and preferences for outcomes and risks of treatments). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1996; 154: 959–967.Boixeda R., Rabella N., Sauca G. et al. Microbiological study of patients hospitalized for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AE-COPD) and the usefulness of analytical and clinical parameters in its identification (VIRAE study). Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulm. Dis. 2012; 7: 327–335.Boixeda R., Rabella N., Sauca G. et al. Microbiological study of patients hospitalized for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AE-COPD) and the usefulness of analytical and clinical parameters in its identification (VIRAE study). Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulm. Dis. 2012; 7: 327–335.Kim N., Leeper K.V. Jr. Epidemiology of chronic bronchitis and acute infective exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000; 21: 73–78.Kim N., Leeper K.V. Jr. Epidemiology of chronic bronchitis and acute infective exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000; 21: 73–78.Reissig A., Mempel C., Schumacher U. et al. Microbiological diagnosis and antibiotic therapy in patients with community-acquired pneumonia and acute COPD exacerbation in daily clinical practice: comparison to current guidelines. Lung 2013; 191: 239–246.Reissig A., Mempel C., Schumacher U. et al. Microbiological diagnosis and antibiotic therapy in patients with community-acquired pneumonia and acute COPD exacerbation in daily clinical practice: comparison to current guidelines. Lung 2013; 191: 239–246.Domenech A., Ardanuy C., Pallares R. et al. Some pneumococcal serotypes are more frequently associated with relapses of acute exacerbations in COPD patients. PLoS One 2013; 8: e59027.Domenech A., Ardanuy C., Pallares R. et al. Some pneumococcal serotypes are more frequently associated with relapses of acute exacerbations in COPD patients. PLoS One 2013; 8: e59027.Anzueto A., Niederman M.S., Tillotson G.S. Etiology, susceptibility, and treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of complicated chronic bronchitis in the primary care setting: ciprofloxacin 750 mg b.i.d. versus clarithromycin 500 mg b.i.d. Bronchitis Study Group. Clin. Ther. 1998; 20:885–900.Anzueto A., Niederman M.S., Tillotson G.S. Etiology, susceptibility, and treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of complicated chronic bronchitis in the primary care setting: ciprofloxacin 750 mg b.i.d. versus clarithromycin 500 mg b.i.d. Bronchitis Study Group. Clin. Ther. 1998; 20:885–900.Eller J., Ede A., Schaberg T. et al. Infective exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: relation between bacteriologic etiology and lung function. Chest 1998; 113: 1542–1548Eller J., Ede A., Schaberg T. et al. Infective exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: relation between bacteriologic etiology and lung function. Chest 1998; 113: 1542–1548Sayiner A., Okyay N., Unsal I. et al. Infective exacerbations of COPD. Chest 1999; 115: 1481.Sayiner A., Okyay N., Unsal I. et al. Infective exacerbations of COPD. Chest 1999; 115: 1481.Авдеев С.Н., Шанина А.Г., Чучалин А.Г. Бактериальная инфекция у больных ХОБЛ с острой дыхательной недостаточностью. Клин. микробиол. и антимикроб. химиотер. 2005; 7: 245–254.Авдеев С.Н., Шанина А.Г., Чучалин А.Г. Бактериальная инфекция у больных ХОБЛ с острой дыхательной недостаточностью. Клин. микробиол. и антимикроб. химиотер. 2005; 7: 245–254.Hvidsten D., Halvorsen D.S., Berdal B.P. et al. Chlamydophila pneumoniae diagnostics: importance of methodology in relation to timing of sampling. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2009; 15: 42–49.Hvidsten D., Halvorsen D.S., Berdal B.P. et al. Chlamydophila pneumoniae diagnostics: importance of methodology in relation to timing of sampling. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2009; 15: 42–49.Goh S.K., Johan A., Cheong T.H. et al. A prospective study of infections with atypical pneumonia organisms in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 1999; 28: 476–480.Goh S.K., Johan A., Cheong T.H. et al. A prospective study of infections with atypical pneumonia organisms in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 1999; 28: 476–480.Sethi S. Infectious exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: diagnosis and management. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1999; 43 (Suppl. A): 97–105.Sethi S. Infectious exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: diagnosis and management. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1999; 43 (Suppl. A): 97–105.Tang L.F., Wang D.F., Cao L.Q. et al. [Correlation between Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2012; 33: 1072–1074.Tang L.F., Wang D.F., Cao L.Q. et al. [Correlation between Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2012; 33: 1072–1074.Dagan R., Leibovitz E. Bacterial eradication in the treatment of otitis media. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2002; 2: 593–604.Dagan R., Leibovitz E. Bacterial eradication in the treatment of otitis media. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2002; 2: 593–604.Lieberthal A.S., Carroll A.E., Chonmaitree T. et al. The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Pediatrics 2013; 131: e964–999.Lieberthal A.S., Carroll A.E., Chonmaitree T. et al. The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Pediatrics 2013; 131: e964–999.Woodhead M., Blasi F., Ewig S. et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections – full version. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2011; 17 (Suppl. 6): E1–Е59.Woodhead M., Blasi F., Ewig S. et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections – full version. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2011; 17 (Suppl. 6): E1–Е59.Jacobs M.R., Felmingham D., Appelbaum P.C. et al. The Alexander Project 1998–2000: susceptibility of pathogens isolated from community-acquired respiratory tract infection to commonly used antimicrobial agents. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2003; 52: 229–246.Jacobs M.R., Felmingham D., Appelbaum P.C. et al. The Alexander Project 1998–2000: susceptibility of pathogens isolated from community-acquired respiratory tract infection to commonly used antimicrobial agents. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2003; 52: 229–246.Maimon N., Nopmaneejumruslers C., Marras T.K. Antibacterial class is not obviously important in outpatient pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Eur. Respir. J. 2008; 31: 1068–1076.Maimon N., Nopmaneejumruslers C., Marras T.K. Antibacterial class is not obviously important in outpatient pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Eur. Respir. J. 2008; 31: 1068–1076.Mulholland S., Gavranich J.B., Gillies M.B. et al. Antibiotics for community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections secondary to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2012; 9: CD004875.Mulholland S., Gavranich J.B., Gillies M.B. et al. Antibiotics for community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections secondary to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2012; 9: CD004875.Guchev I.A., Yu V.L., Sinopalnikov A. et al. Management of nonsevere pneumonia in military trainees with the urinary antigen test for Streptococcus pneumoniae: an innovative approach to targeted therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005; 40: 1608–1616.Guchev I.A., Yu V.L., Sinopalnikov A. et al. Management of nonsevere pneumonia in military trainees with the urinary antigen test for Streptococcus pneumoniae: an innovative approach to targeted therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005; 40: 1608–1616.Mohan A., Chandra S., Agarwal D. et al. Prevalence of viral infection detected by PCR and RT-PCR in patients with acute exacerbation of COPD: a systematic review. Respirology 2010; 15: 536–542.Mohan A., Chandra S., Agarwal D. et al. Prevalence of viral infection detected by PCR and RT-PCR in patients with acute exacerbation of COPD: a systematic review. Respirology 2010; 15: 536–542.Holm A., Pedersen S.S., Nexoe J. et al. Procalcitonin versus C-reactive protein for predicting pneumonia in adults with lower respiratory tract infection in primary care. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2007; 57: 555–560.Holm A., Pedersen S.S., Nexoe J. et al. Procalcitonin versus C-reactive protein for predicting pneumonia in adults with lower respiratory tract infection in primary care. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2007; 57: 555–560.van der Meer V., Neven A.K., van den Broek P.J. et al. Diagnostic value of C reactive protein in infections of the lower respiratory tract: systematic review. Br. Med. J. 2005; 331: 26.van der Meer V., Neven A.K., van den Broek P.J. et al. Diagnostic value of C reactive protein in infections of the lower respiratory tract: systematic review. Br. Med. J. 2005; 331: 26.Engel M.F., Paling F.P., Hoepelman A.I. et al. Evaluating the evidence for the implementation of C-reactive protein measurement in adult patients with suspected lower respiratory tract infection in primary care: a systematic review. Fam. Pract. 2012; 29 (4): 383–393.Engel M.F., Paling F.P., Hoepelman A.I. et al. Evaluating the evidence for the implementation of C-reactive protein measurement in adult patients with suspected lower respiratory tract infection in primary care: a systematic review. Fam. Pract. 2012; 29 (4): 383–393.Graffelman A.W., Knuistingh Neven A., le Cessie S. et al. A diagnostic rule for the aetiology of lower respiratory tract infections as guidance for antimicrobial treatment. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2004; 54: 20–24.Graffelman A.W., Knuistingh Neven A., le Cessie S. et al. A diagnostic rule for the aetiology of lower respiratory tract infections as guidance for antimicrobial treatment. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2004; 54: 20–24.Stefan M.S., Rothberg M.B., Shieh M.S. et al. Association between antibiotic treatment and outcomes in patients hospitalized with acute exacerbation of COPD treated with systemic steroids. Chest 2013; 143: 82–90.Stefan M.S., Rothberg M.B., Shieh M.S. et al. Association between antibiotic treatment and outcomes in patients hospitalized with acute exacerbation of COPD treated with systemic steroids. Chest 2013; 143: 82–90.File T.M. Jr, Monte S.V., Schentag J.J. et al. A disease model descriptive of progression between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations and community-acquired pneumonia: roles for underlying lung disease and the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2009; 33: 58–64.File T.M. Jr, Monte S.V., Schentag J.J. et al. A disease model descriptive of progression between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations and community-acquired pneumonia: roles for underlying lung disease and the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2009; 33: 58–64.Mannino D.M., Davis K.J., Kiri V.A. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and hospitalizations for pneumonia in a US cohort. Respir. Med. 2009; 103 (2): 224–229.Mannino D.M., Davis K.J., Kiri V.A. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and hospitalizations for pneumonia in a US cohort. Respir. Med. 2009; 103 (2): 224–229.Anthonisen N.R., Manfreda J., Warren C.P. et al. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 1987; 106: 196–204.Anthonisen N.R., Manfreda J., Warren C.P. et al. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 1987; 106: 196–204.Stockley R.A., O'Brien C., Pye A. et al. Relationship of sputum color to nature and outpatient management of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest 2000; 117: 1638–1645.Stockley R.A., O'Brien C., Pye A. et al. Relationship of sputum color to nature and outpatient management of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest 2000; 117: 1638–1645.Sapey E., Stockley R.A. COPD exacerbations. 2: aetiology. Thorax 2006; 61: 250–258.Sapey E., Stockley R.A. COPD exacerbations. 2: aetiology. Thorax 2006; 61: 250–258.O'Donnell D.E., Aaron S., Bourbeau J. et al. Canadian Thoracic Society recommendations for management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-2003. Can. Respir. J. 2003; 10 (Suppl. A): 11A–65A.O'Donnell D.E., Aaron S., Bourbeau J. et al. Canadian Thoracic Society recommendations for management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-2003. Can. Respir. J. 2003; 10 (Suppl. A): 11A–65A.Ram F.S., Rodriguez3Roisin R., Granados3Navarrete A. et al. Antibiotics for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2006; 2: CD004403.Ram F.S., Rodriguez3Roisin R., Granados3Navarrete A. et al. Antibiotics for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2006; 2: CD004403.Козлов Р.С., Сивая О.В., Кречикова О.И. и др. Динамика резистентности Streptococcus pneumoniae к антибиотикам в России за период 1999–2009 гг. (Результаты многоцентрового исследования ПеГАС). Клин. микробиол. и антимикроб. химиотер. 2010; 12: 329–341.Козлов Р.С., Сивая О.В., Кречикова О.И. и др. Динамика резистентности Streptococcus pneumoniae к антибиотикам в России за период 1999–2009 гг. (Результаты многоцентрового исследования ПеГАС). Клин. микробиол. и антимикроб. химиотер. 2010; 12: 329–341.Schentag J.J., Klugman K.P., Yu V.L. et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteraemia: pharmacodynamic correlations with outcome and macrolide resistance – a controlled study. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2007; 30: 264–269.Schentag J.J., Klugman K.P., Yu V.L. et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteraemia: pharmacodynamic correlations with outcome and macrolide resistance – a controlled study. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2007; 30: 264–269.Lisby J.G., Brasholt M., Teglbjoerg L.L. [Bacteremia and meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae during treatment with azithromycin]. Ugeskr. Laeg. 2002; 164: 2629.Lisby J.G., Brasholt M., Teglbjoerg L.L. [Bacteremia and meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae during treatment with azithromycin]. Ugeskr. Laeg. 2002; 164: 2629.Kelley M.A., Weber D.J., Gilligan P. et al. Breakthrough pneumococcal bacteremia in patients being treated with azithromycin and clarithromycin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2000; 31: 1008–1011.Kelley M.A., Weber D.J., Gilligan P. et al. Breakthrough pneumococcal bacteremia in patients being treated with azithromycin and clarithromycin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2000; 31: 1008–1011.Jackson M.A., Burry V.F., Olson L.C. et al. Breakthrough sepsis in macrolide-resistant pneumococcal infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 1996; 15: 1049–1051.Jackson M.A., Burry V.F., Olson L.C. et al. Breakthrough sepsis in macrolide-resistant pneumococcal infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 1996; 15: 1049–1051.Kronman M.P., Hersh A.L., Feng R. et al. Ambulatory visit rates and antibiotic prescribing for children with pneumonia, 1994–2007. Pediatrics 2011; 127: 411–418.Kronman M.P., Hersh A.L., Feng R. et al. Ambulatory visit rates and antibiotic prescribing for children with pneumonia, 1994–2007. Pediatrics 2011; 127: 411–418.Chow A.W., Benninger M.S., Brook I. et al. IDSA Clinical Practice Guideline for Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in Children and Adults. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2012; 54: e72–e112.Chow A.W., Benninger M.S., Brook I. et al. IDSA Clinical Practice Guideline for Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in Children and Adults. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2012; 54: e72–e112.Lorenz J. Comparison of 5-day and 10-day cefixime in the treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Chemotherapy 1998; 44 (Suppl. 1): 15–18.Lorenz J. Comparison of 5-day and 10-day cefixime in the treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Chemotherapy 1998; 44 (Suppl. 1): 15–18.Falagas M.E., Avgeri S.G., Matthaiou D.K. et al. Short- versus long-duration antimicrobial treatment for exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: a meta-analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2008; 62: 442–450.Falagas M.E., Avgeri S.G., Matthaiou D.K. et al. Short- versus long-duration antimicrobial treatment for exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: a meta-analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2008; 62: 442–450.Garcia3Cobos S., Arroyo M., Perez3Vazquez M. et al. Isolates of beta-lactamase-negative ampicillin-resistant Haemophilus influenzae causing invasive infections in Spain remain susceptible to cefotaxime and imipenem. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2013 [Epub ahead of print].Garcia3Cobos S., Arroyo M., Perez3Vazquez M. et al. Isolates of beta-lactamase-negative ampicillin-resistant Haemophilus influenzae causing invasive infections in Spain remain susceptible to cefotaxime and imipenem. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2013 [Epub ahead of print].Jansen W.T., Verel A., Beitsma M. et al. Surveillance study of the susceptibility of Haemophilus influenzae to various antibacterial agents in Europe and Canada. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 2008; 24: 2853–2861.Jansen W.T., Verel A., Beitsma M. et al. Surveillance study of the susceptibility of Haemophilus influenzae to various antibacterial agents in Europe and Canada. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 2008; 24: 2853–2861.Schneider C., Jick S.S., Bothner U. et al. COPD and the risk of depression. Chest 2010; 137: 341–347.Schneider C., Jick S.S., Bothner U. et al. COPD and the risk of depression. Chest 2010; 137: 341–347.Minoretti P., Politi P., Martinelli V. et al. QT interval duration in apparently healthy men is associated with depression-related personality trait neuroticism. J. Psychosom. Res. 2006; 61: 19–23.Minoretti P., Politi P., Martinelli V. et al. QT interval duration in apparently healthy men is associated with depression-related personality trait neuroticism. J. Psychosom. Res. 2006; 61: 19–23.Kaye A.D., Volpi3Abadie J., Bensler J.M. et al. QT interval abnormalities: risk factors and perioperative management in long QT syndromes and Torsades de Pointes. J. Anesth. 2013; 27: 575–587.Kaye A.D., Volpi3Abadie J., Bensler J.M. et al. QT interval abnormalities: risk factors and perioperative management in long QT syndromes and Torsades de Pointes. J. Anesth. 2013; 27: 575–587.Food and Drug Administration (USA) Safety Information. Azithromycin (Zithromax or Zmax): Drug Safety Communication – Risk of Potentially Fatal Heart Rhythms. Available at URL: http://www.fda.gov/safety/medwatch/safetyinformation/safetyalertsforhumanmedicalproducts/ucm343350.htm. [Posted 03/12/2013]. Last accessed 2013-10-01.Food and Drug Administration (USA) Safety Information. Azithromycin (Zithromax or Zmax): Drug Safety Communication – Risk of Potentially Fatal Heart Rhythms. Available at URL: http://www.fda.gov/safety/medwatch/safetyinformation/safetyalertsforhumanmedicalproducts/ucm343350.htm. [Posted 03/12/2013]. Last accessed 2013-10-01.Jenkins C.R., Jones P.W., Calverley P.M. et al. Efficacy of salmeterol / fluticasone propionate by GOLD stage of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: analysis from the randomised, placebo-controlled TORCH study. Respir. Res. 2009; 10: 59.Jenkins C.R., Jones P.W., Calverley P.M. et al. Efficacy of salmeterol / fluticasone propionate by GOLD stage of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: analysis from the randomised, placebo-controlled TORCH study. Respir. Res. 2009; 10: 59.Decramer M., Celli B., Kesten S. et al. Effect of tiotropium on outcomes in patients with moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (UPLIFT): a prespecified subgroup analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 374: 1171–1178.Decramer M., Celli B., Kesten S. et al. Effect of tiotropium on outcomes in patients with moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (UPLIFT): a prespecified subgroup analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 374: 1171–1178.Hurst J.R., Vestbo J., Anzueto A. et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010; 363: 1128–1138.Hurst J.R., Vestbo J., Anzueto A. et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010; 363: 1128–1138.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.