pulmoПульмонологияPULMONOLOGIYA0869-01892541-9617Scientific and Practical Journal “PULMONOLOGIYA” LLC10.18093/0869-0189-2009-0-1-11-31pulmo-1730Research ArticleКЛИНИЧЕСКИЕ РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИCLINICAL GUIDELINESПаллиативная помощь больным с респираторной патологией и критическими состояниями: официальный документ Американского торакального обществаPalliative care for patients with respiratory diseases and critical illnessesЛанкенП. Н.LankenP. N.ТерриП. Б.TerryP. B.ДелиссерХ. М.DelisserH. M.ФахиБ. Ф.FahyB. F.Хансен-ФлашенДж.Hansen-FlaschenJ.ХеффнерДж. Е.HeffnerJ. E.ЛевиM.LevyM.МуларскиР. А.MularskiR. A.ОсборнМ. Л.OsborneM. L.ПрендергастT. Дж.PrendergastT. J.РокерДж.RockerG.СиббалдВ. Дж.SibbaldW. J.200928022009011131Copyright © Ланкен П.Н., Терри П.Б., Делиссер Х.М., Фахи Б.Ф., Хансен-Флашен Д., Хеффнер Д.Е., Леви M., Муларски Р.А., Осборн М.Л., Прендергаст T.Д., Рокер Д., Сиббалд В.Д., 20092009Ланкен П.Н., Терри П.Б., Делиссер Х.М., Фахи Б.Ф., Хансен-Флашен Д., Хеффнер Д.Е., Леви M., Муларски Р.А., Осборн М.Л., Прендергаст T.Д., Рокер Д., Сиббалд В.Д.Lanken P.N., Terry P.B., Delisser H.M., Fahy B.F., Hansen-Flaschen J., Heffner J.E., Levy M., Mularski R.A., Osborne M.L., Prendergast T.J., Rocker G., Sibbald W.J.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://journal.pulmonology.ru/pulm/article/view/1730
.
.
ReferencesSaunders C. The evolution of palliative care. J. Roy. Soc. Med. 2001; 94: 430–432.Saunders C. The evolution of palliative care. J. Roy. Soc. Med. 2001; 94: 430–432.World Health Organization. WHO definition of palliative care-2005. [Internet] [accessed April 18, 2005]. Available from: http://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/definition/en/print.htmlWorld Health Organization. WHO definition of palliative care-2005. [Internet] [accessed April 18, 2005]. Available from: http://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/definition/en/print.htmlInstitute of Medicine, Committee on Care at the End of Life. Approaching death: improving care at the end of life. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1997.Institute of Medicine, Committee on Care at the End of Life. Approaching death: improving care at the end of life. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1997.Field M.J., Behrman R.E., eds. When children die: improv- ing palliative and end-of-life care for children and their families. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2003.Field M.J., Behrman R.E., eds. When children die: improv- ing palliative and end-of-life care for children and their families. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2003.American Thoracic Society. Withholding and withdrawing of lifesustaining therapy. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1991; 144: 726–731.American Thoracic Society. Withholding and withdrawing of lifesustaining therapy. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1991; 144: 726–731.American Thoracic Society. Fair allocation of intensive care unit resources. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1997; 156: 1282–1301.American Thoracic Society. Fair allocation of intensive care unit resources. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1997; 156: 1282–1301.Beauchamp T.L., Childress J.F. Principles of biomedical ethics, 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.Beauchamp T.L., Childress J.F. Principles of biomedical ethics, 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.Jones J., Hunter D. Consensus methods for medical and health services research. Br. Med. J. 1995; 311: 376–380.Jones J., Hunter D. Consensus methods for medical and health services research. Br. Med. J. 1995; 311: 376–380.Moore C.M. Group techniques for idea building. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1994.Moore C.M. Group techniques for idea building. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1994.Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2004.Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2004.Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002.Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002.Carter B.S., Levetown M., eds. Palliative care for infants, children, and adolescents: a practical handbook. Balti- more, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2004.Carter B.S., Levetown M., eds. Palliative care for infants, children, and adolescents: a practical handbook. Balti- more, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2004.Abrahm J.L. A physician's guide to pain and symptom management in cancer patients. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2005.Abrahm J.L. A physician's guide to pain and symptom management in cancer patients. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2005.Snyder L., Quill T.E. Physician's guide to end-of-life care. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine; 2001.Snyder L., Quill T.E. Physician's guide to end-of-life care. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine; 2001.Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.Davies B., Summer L.H. Special consideration for children in palliative medicine. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 822–831.Davies B., Summer L.H. Special consideration for children in palliative medicine. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 822–831.Feudtner C., Hays R.M., Haynes G. et al. Deaths attributed to pediatric complex chronic conditions: national trends and implications for supportive care services. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 99–103.Feudtner C., Hays R.M., Haynes G. et al. Deaths attributed to pediatric complex chronic conditions: national trends and implications for supportive care services. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 99–103.Wilfond B., Taussig L.M. Cystic fibrosis: clinical overview. In: Taussig L.M., Landau L.I., eds. Textbook of pediatric pulmonary medicine. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Yearbook; 1999. 982–990.Wilfond B., Taussig L.M. Cystic fibrosis: clinical overview. In: Taussig L.M., Landau L.I., eds. Textbook of pediatric pulmonary medicine. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Yearbook; 1999. 982–990.von Gunten C.F., Ferris F.D., Emanuel L.L. The patient-physician relationship: ensuring competency in end-of-life care: communication and relational skills. J. A. M. A. 2000; 284: 3051–3057.von Gunten C.F., Ferris F.D., Emanuel L.L. The patient-physician relationship: ensuring competency in end-of-life care: communication and relational skills. J. A. M. A. 2000; 284: 3051–3057.Emanuel L.L., von Gunten C.F., Ferris F.D. The education in palliative and end-of-life care (EPEC) curriculum: the EPEC project-1999 [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://epec.net/EPEC/Webpages/ index.cfmEmanuel L.L., von Gunten C.F., Ferris F.D. The education in palliative and end-of-life care (EPEC) curriculum: the EPEC project-1999 [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://epec.net/EPEC/Webpages/ index.cfmBuckman R. How to break bad news: a guide for health care professionals. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1992.Buckman R. How to break bad news: a guide for health care professionals. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1992.Curtis J.R., Patrick D.L. How to discuss dying and death in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 85–102.Curtis J.R., Patrick D.L. How to discuss dying and death in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 85–102.Lo B., Quill T.E., Tulsky J. Discussing palliative care with patients. In: Snyder L., Quill T.E., eds. Physician's guide to end-of-life care. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine; 2001. 3–18. American Thoracic Society Documents 923.Lo B., Quill T.E., Tulsky J. Discussing palliative care with patients. In: Snyder L., Quill T.E., eds. Physician's guide to end-of-life care. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine; 2001. 3–18. American Thoracic Society Documents 923.Curtis J.R. Communicating about end-of-life care with patients and families in the intensive care unit. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 363–380.Curtis J.R. Communicating about end-of-life care with patients and families in the intensive care unit. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 363–380.American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Bioethics. Ethics and the care of critically ill infants and children. Pediatrics 1996; 98: 149–152.American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Bioethics. Ethics and the care of critically ill infants and children. Pediatrics 1996; 98: 149–152.American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Bioethics. Informed consent, parental permission, and assent in pediatric practice. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 314–317.American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Bioethics. Informed consent, parental permission, and assent in pediatric practice. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 314–317.Stevens M.M. Care of the dying child and adolescent: family adjustment and support. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of pallia- tive medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 806–822.Stevens M.M. Care of the dying child and adolescent: family adjustment and support. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of pallia- tive medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 806–822.Blackhall L.J., Murphy S.T., Frank G. et al. Ethnicity and attitudes toward patient autonomy. J. A. M. A. 1995; 274: 820–825.Blackhall L.J., Murphy S.T., Frank G. et al. Ethnicity and attitudes toward patient autonomy. J. A. M. A. 1995; 274: 820–825.Kagawa-Singer M., Blackhall L.J. Negotiating cross-cultural issues at the end of life: ''you got to go where he lives.'' J. A. M. A. 2001; 286: 2993–3001.Kagawa-Singer M., Blackhall L.J. Negotiating cross-cultural issues at the end of life: ''you got to go where he lives.'' J. A. M. A. 2001; 286: 2993–3001.Schostak R.Z. Jewish ethical guidelines for resuscitation and artificial nutrition and hydration of the dying elderly. J. Med. Ethics 1994; 20: 93–100.Schostak R.Z. Jewish ethical guidelines for resuscitation and artificial nutrition and hydration of the dying elderly. J. Med. Ethics 1994; 20: 93–100.American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Bioethics and Committee on Hospital Care. Palliative care for children. Pediatrics 2000;106: 351–357.American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Bioethics and Committee on Hospital Care. Palliative care for children. Pediatrics 2000;106: 351–357.President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Making health care decisions: the ethical and legal impli- cations of informed consent in the patient-practitioner relationship. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1982.President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Making health care decisions: the ethical and legal impli- cations of informed consent in the patient-practitioner relationship. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1982.Danis M., Garrett J., Harris R., Patrick D.L. Stability of choices about life-sustaining treatments. Ann Intern Med. 1994; 120: 567–573.Danis M., Garrett J., Harris R., Patrick D.L. Stability of choices about life-sustaining treatments. Ann Intern Med. 1994; 120: 567–573.Danis M., Southerland L.I., Garrett J.M. et al. A prospective study of advance directives for life-sustaining care. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991; 324: 882–888.Danis M., Southerland L.I., Garrett J.M. et al. A prospective study of advance directives for life-sustaining care. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991; 324: 882–888.Thompson T., Barbour R., Schwartz L. Adherence to advance directives in critical care decision making: vignette study. Br. Med. J. 2003; 327: 1011–1014.Thompson T., Barbour R., Schwartz L. Adherence to advance directives in critical care decision making: vignette study. Br. Med. J. 2003; 327: 1011–1014.Dobalian A. Nursing facility compliance with do-not-hospitalize orders. Gerontologist 2004; 44: 159–165.Dobalian A. Nursing facility compliance with do-not-hospitalize orders. Gerontologist 2004; 44: 159–165.Hardin S.B., YusufalyY.A. Difficult end-of-life treatment decisions: doother factors trump advance directives? Arch. Intern Med. 2004; 164: 1531–1533.Hardin S.B., YusufalyY.A. Difficult end-of-life treatment decisions: doother factors trump advance directives? Arch. Intern Med. 2004; 164: 1531–1533.McGee G. Paper shields: why advance directives still don't work. Princet J. Bioeth. 1998; 1: 42–57.McGee G. Paper shields: why advance directives still don't work. Princet J. Bioeth. 1998; 1: 42–57.McAliley L.G., Hudson-Barr D.C., Gunning R.S., Row-bottom L.A. The use of advance directives with adolescents. Pediatr. Nurs. 2000; 26: 471–480.McAliley L.G., Hudson-Barr D.C., Gunning R.S., Row-bottom L.A. The use of advance directives with adolescents. Pediatr. Nurs. 2000; 26: 471–480.Hearn J., Higginson I.J. Do specialist palliative care teams improve outcomes for cancer patients? A systematic liter- ature review. Palliat. Med. 1998; 12: 317–332.Hearn J., Higginson I.J. Do specialist palliative care teams improve outcomes for cancer patients? A systematic liter- ature review. Palliat. Med. 1998; 12: 317–332.Morrison R.S., Meier D.E. Palliative care. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 350: 2582–2590.Morrison R.S., Meier D.E. Palliative care. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 350: 2582–2590.Campbell M.L., Frank R.R. Experience with an end-of-life practice at a university hospital. Crit. Care Med. 1997; 25: 197–202.Campbell M.L., Frank R.R. Experience with an end-of-life practice at a university hospital. Crit. Care Med. 1997; 25: 197–202.Au D.H., Udris E.M., Fihn S.D. et al. Differences in health care utilization at the end of life among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and patients with lung cancer. Arch. Intern. Med. 2006; 166: 326–331.Au D.H., Udris E.M., Fihn S.D. et al. Differences in health care utilization at the end of life among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and patients with lung cancer. Arch. Intern. Med. 2006; 166: 326–331.Curtis J.R., Engelberg R.A., Wenrich M.D., Au D.H. Communication about palliative care for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Palliat. Care 2005; 21: 157–164.Curtis J.R., Engelberg R.A., Wenrich M.D., Au D.H. Communication about palliative care for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Palliat. Care 2005; 21: 157–164.National Hospice Foundation. Consumers guide to selecting a hospice-2000 [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.nhpco.org/i4a/pages/Index.cfm?pageID53254National Hospice Foundation. Consumers guide to selecting a hospice-2000 [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.nhpco.org/i4a/pages/Index.cfm?pageID53254Saunders C., Kastenbaum R., eds. Hospice care on the international scene. New York: Springer Pub. Co; 1997. The Springer series on death and suicide.Saunders C., Kastenbaum R., eds. Hospice care on the international scene. New York: Springer Pub. Co; 1997. The Springer series on death and suicide.Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Medicare hospice benefits [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.medicare.gov/publications/pubs/pdf/02154.pdfCenters for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Medicare hospice benefits [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.medicare.gov/publications/pubs/pdf/02154.pdfNational Hospice Foundation. Consumers guide to the Medicare hospice benefit-2000 [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.americanhos-pice.org/index.php?option5com_content&task5view&id542&Itemid58National Hospice Foundation. Consumers guide to the Medicare hospice benefit-2000 [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.americanhos-pice.org/index.php?option5com_content&task5view&id542&Itemid58Pritchard R.S., Fisher E.S., Teno J.M. et al. Influence of patient preferences and local health system characteristics on the place of death. SUPPORT investigators (Study to understand prognoses and preferences for risks and outcomes of treatment). J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 1998; 46: 1242–1250.Pritchard R.S., Fisher E.S., Teno J.M. et al. Influence of patient preferences and local health system characteristics on the place of death. SUPPORT investigators (Study to understand prognoses and preferences for risks and outcomes of treatment). J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 1998; 46: 1242–1250.Guthrie B., Nelson M., Gazzard B. Are people with HIV in London ableto die where they plan? AIDS Care 1996; 8: 709–713.Guthrie B., Nelson M., Gazzard B. Are people with HIV in London ableto die where they plan? AIDS Care 1996; 8: 709–713.Feudtner C., Silveira M.J., Christakis D.A. Where do children with complex chronic conditions die? Patterns in Washington State, 1980–1998. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 656–660.Feudtner C., Silveira M.J., Christakis D.A. Where do children with complex chronic conditions die? Patterns in Washington State, 1980–1998. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 656–660.Fox E., Landrum-McNiff K., Zhong Z. et al. SUPPORT investigators. Evaluation of prognostic criteria for determining hospice eligibility in patients with advanced lung, heart, or liver disease. J. A. M. A. 1999; 282: 1638–1645.Fox E., Landrum-McNiff K., Zhong Z. et al. SUPPORT investigators. Evaluation of prognostic criteria for determining hospice eligibility in patients with advanced lung, heart, or liver disease. J. A. M. A. 1999; 282: 1638–1645.Seneff M.G., Wagner D.P., Wagner R.P. et al. Hospital and 1-year survival of patients admitted to intensive care units with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. A. M. A. 1995; 274: 1852–1857.Seneff M.G., Wagner D.P., Wagner R.P. et al. Hospital and 1-year survival of patients admitted to intensive care units with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. A. M. A. 1995; 274: 1852–1857.Meier D.E., Morrison R.S., Cassel C.K. Improving palliative care. Ann. Intern. Med. 1997; 127: 225–230.Meier D.E., Morrison R.S., Cassel C.K. Improving palliative care. Ann. Intern. Med. 1997; 127: 225–230.Brickner L., Scannell K., Margaret S., Ackerson L. Barriers to hospice care and referrals: survey of physicians' knowl- edge, attitudes, and perceptions in a health maintenance organization. J. Palliat. Med. 2004; 7: 411–418.Brickner L., Scannell K., Margaret S., Ackerson L. Barriers to hospice care and referrals: survey of physicians' knowl- edge, attitudes, and perceptions in a health maintenance organization. J. Palliat. Med. 2004; 7: 411–418.National Hospice Organization. Medical guidelines for determining prognosis in selected non-cancer diseases. Hospice J. 1996; 11: 47–63.National Hospice Organization. Medical guidelines for determining prognosis in selected non-cancer diseases. Hospice J. 1996; 11: 47–63.Cahaba Government Benefit Administrators Midwest. Local coverage determination for hospice-determining terminal status (L13653) [Internet] [last modified 2008 Jan 3; accessed 2008 Mar 11]. Available from: http://www.cms.hhs.gov/mcd/viewlcd.asp?lcd_id=13653&lcd_ver-sion=28&show=allCahaba Government Benefit Administrators Midwest. Local coverage determination for hospice-determining terminal status (L13653) [Internet] [last modified 2008 Jan 3; accessed 2008 Mar 11]. Available from: http://www.cms.hhs.gov/mcd/viewlcd.asp?lcd_id=13653&lcd_ver-sion=28&show=allCelli B.R., Cote C.G., Marin J.M. et al. The body-mass index, airflow obstruction, dyspnea, and exercise capacity index in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 350: 1005–1012.Celli B.R., Cote C.G., Marin J.M. et al. The body-mass index, airflow obstruction, dyspnea, and exercise capacity index in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 350: 1005–1012.Abrahm J.L., Hansen-Flaschen J. Hospice care for patients with advanced lung disease. Chest 2002; 121: 220–229.Abrahm J.L., Hansen-Flaschen J. Hospice care for patients with advanced lung disease. Chest 2002; 121: 220–229.Ingleton C., Payne S., Nolan M., Carey I. Respite in palliative care: a review and discussion of the literature. Palliat. Med. 2003; 17: 567–575.Ingleton C., Payne S., Nolan M., Carey I. Respite in palliative care: a review and discussion of the literature. Palliat. Med. 2003; 17: 567–575.Quill T.E., Byock I.R. Responding to intractable terminal suffering: the role of terminal sedation and voluntary refusal of food and fluids. ACP-ASIM End-of-Life Care Consensus Panel. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000; 132: 408–414.Quill T.E., Byock I.R. Responding to intractable terminal suffering: the role of terminal sedation and voluntary refusal of food and fluids. ACP-ASIM End-of-Life Care Consensus Panel. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000; 132: 408–414.Quill T.E., Lo B., Brock D.W. Palliative options of last resort: a comparison of voluntarily stopping eating and drinking, terminal sedation, physician-assisted suicide, and voluntary active euthanasia. J. A. M. A. 1997; 278: 2099–2104.Quill T.E., Lo B., Brock D.W. Palliative options of last resort: a comparison of voluntarily stopping eating and drinking, terminal sedation, physician-assisted suicide, and voluntary active euthanasia. J. A. M. A. 1997; 278: 2099–2104.Cruzan v Director, Missouri Department of Health. 497 U.S. 261 (1990).Cruzan v Director, Missouri Department of Health. 497 U.S. 261 (1990).Annas G.J. The bell tolls for a constitutional right to physician-assisted suicide. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 337: 1098–1103.Annas G.J. The bell tolls for a constitutional right to physician-assisted suicide. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 337: 1098–1103.American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs. Good care of the dying patient. J. A. M. A. 1996; 275: 474–478.American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs. Good care of the dying patient. J. A. M. A. 1996; 275: 474–478.Hansen-Flaschen J. Advanced lung disease: palliation and terminal care. Clin. Chest Med. 1997; 18: 645–655.Hansen-Flaschen J. Advanced lung disease: palliation and terminal care. Clin. Chest Med. 1997; 18: 645–655.Higginson I., Priest P., McCarthy M. Are bereaved family members a valid proxy for a patient's assessment of dying? Soc. Sci Med. 1994; 38: 553–557.Higginson I., Priest P., McCarthy M. Are bereaved family members a valid proxy for a patient's assessment of dying? Soc. Sci Med. 1994; 38: 553–557.Wolfe J., Grier H.E., Klar N. et al. Symptoms and suffering at the end of life in children with cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000; 342: 326–333.Wolfe J., Grier H.E., Klar N. et al. Symptoms and suffering at the end of life in children with cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000; 342: 326–333.Kane J.R., Himelstein B.P. Palliative care in pediatrics. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 1044–1061.Kane J.R., Himelstein B.P. Palliative care in pediatrics. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 1044–1061.Lynn J., Teno J.M., Phillips R.S. et al. Perceptions by family members of the dying experience of older and seriously ill patients. SUPPORT investigators. Ann. Intern. Med. 1997; 126: 97–106.Lynn J., Teno J.M., Phillips R.S. et al. Perceptions by family members of the dying experience of older and seriously ill patients. SUPPORT investigators. Ann. Intern. Med. 1997; 126: 97–106.Claessens M.T., Lynn J., Zhong Z. et al. Dying with lung cancer or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: insights from SUPPORT. Study to understand prognoses and preferences for outcomes and risks of treatments. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2000; 48: S146–S153.Claessens M.T., Lynn J., Zhong Z. et al. Dying with lung cancer or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: insights from SUPPORT. Study to understand prognoses and preferences for outcomes and risks of treatments. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2000; 48: S146–S153.Bredin M., Corner J., Krishnasamy M. et al. Multicentre randomised controlled trial of nursing intervention for breathlessness in patients with lung cancer. Br. Med. J. 1999; 318: 901–904.Bredin M., Corner J., Krishnasamy M. et al. Multicentre randomised controlled trial of nursing intervention for breathlessness in patients with lung cancer. Br. Med. J. 1999; 318: 901–904.Bestall J.C., Paul E.A., Garrod R. et al. Usefulness of the Medical Research Council (MRC) dyspnoea scale as a measure of disability in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1999; 54: 581–586.Bestall J.C., Paul E.A., Garrod R. et al. Usefulness of the Medical Research Council (MRC) dyspnoea scale as a measure of disability in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1999; 54: 581–586.Mancini I., Body J.J. Assessment of dyspnea in advanced cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 1999; 7: 229–232.Mancini I., Body J.J. Assessment of dyspnea in advanced cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 1999; 7: 229–232.Campbell M.L. Terminal dyspnea and respiratory distress. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 403–417.Campbell M.L. Terminal dyspnea and respiratory distress. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 403–417.Corner J., Plant H., A'Hern R., Bailey C. Non-pharmacological intervention for breathlessness in lung cancer. Palliat. Med. 1996; 10: 299–305.Corner J., Plant H., A'Hern R., Bailey C. Non-pharmacological intervention for breathlessness in lung cancer. Palliat. Med. 1996; 10: 299–305.Krishnasamy M., Corner J., Bredin M., et al. Cancer nursing practice development: Understanding breathlessness. J. Clin. Nurs. 2001; 10: 103–108.Krishnasamy M., Corner J., Bredin M., et al. Cancer nursing practice development: Understanding breathlessness. J. Clin. Nurs. 2001; 10: 103–108.Sola I., Thompson E., Subirana M. et al. Non-invasive interventions for improving well-being and quality of life in patients with lung cancer [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2004; 4. Available from: http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD004282/frame.htmlSola I., Thompson E., Subirana M. et al. Non-invasive interventions for improving well-being and quality of life in patients with lung cancer [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2004; 4. Available from: http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD004282/frame.htmlWedzicha J.A., Bestall J.C., Garrod R. et al. Randomized controlled trial of pulmonary rehabilitation in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients, stratified with the MRC dyspnoea scale. Eur. Respir. J. 1998; 12: 363–369.Wedzicha J.A., Bestall J.C., Garrod R. et al. Randomized controlled trial of pulmonary rehabilitation in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients, stratified with the MRC dyspnoea scale. Eur. Respir. J. 1998; 12: 363–369.Lacasse Y., Brosseau L., Milne S. et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. [Internet] [accessed March 11, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2001; 4. Available from: http://www.mrw.inter-science.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD003793/frame.htmlLacasse Y., Brosseau L., Milne S. et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. [Internet] [accessed March 11, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2001; 4. Available from: http://www.mrw.inter-science.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD003793/frame.htmlRuckdeschel J.C., Robinson L.A. Management of pleural and pericardial effusions. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E, eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. pp. 389–412.Ruckdeschel J.C., Robinson L.A. Management of pleural and pericardial effusions. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E, eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. pp. 389–412.Kvale P.A., Simoff M., Prakash U.B. Lung cancer: palliative care. Chest 2003; 123: 284S–311S.Kvale P.A., Simoff M., Prakash U.B. Lung cancer: palliative care. Chest 2003; 123: 284S–311S.Chan K.-S., Sham M.M.K., Tse D.M.W., Thorsen A.B. Palliative medicine in malignant respiratory diseases. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 587–618.Chan K.-S., Sham M.M.K., Tse D.M.W., Thorsen A.B. Palliative medicine in malignant respiratory diseases. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 587–618.Bruera E., Sweeney C., Ripamonti C. Management of dyspnea. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 357–371.Bruera E., Sweeney C., Ripamonti C. Management of dyspnea. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 357–371.Biller J.A. Airway obstruction, bronchospasm, and cough. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 378–388.Biller J.A. Airway obstruction, bronchospasm, and cough. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 378–388.Panitch H.B., Downes J.J., Kennedy J.S. et al. Guidelines for home care of children with chronic respiratory insufficiency. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 1996; 21: 52–56.Panitch H.B., Downes J.J., Kennedy J.S. et al. Guidelines for home care of children with chronic respiratory insufficiency. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 1996; 21: 52–56.Storgion S. Care of children requiring home mechanical ventilation. In: McConnell M.S., ed. Guidelines for pediatric home health care. Elk GroveVillage, IL: American Aca- demy of Pediatrics; 2002. 307–321.Storgion S. Care of children requiring home mechanical ventilation. In: McConnell M.S., ed. Guidelines for pediatric home health care. Elk GroveVillage, IL: American Aca- demy of Pediatrics; 2002. 307–321.Shee C.D., Green M. Non-invasive ventilation and palliation: experience in a district general hospital and a review. Palliat. Med. 2003; 17: 21–26.Shee C.D., Green M. Non-invasive ventilation and palliation: experience in a district general hospital and a review. Palliat. Med. 2003; 17: 21–26.Robinson W.M., Ravilly S., Berde C., Wohl M.E. End-oflife care in cystic fibrosis. Pediatrics 1997; 100: 205–209.Robinson W.M., Ravilly S., Berde C., Wohl M.E. End-oflife care in cystic fibrosis. Pediatrics 1997; 100: 205–209.Booth S., Kelly M.J., Cox N.P. et al. Does oxygen help dyspnea in patients with cancer? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1996; 153: 1515–1518.Booth S., Kelly M.J., Cox N.P. et al. Does oxygen help dyspnea in patients with cancer? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1996; 153: 1515–1518.Meduri G.U., Fox R.C., Abou-Shala N. et al. Noninvasive mechanical ventilation via face mask in patients with acute respiratory failure who refused endotracheal intubation. Crit. Care Med. 1994; 22: 1584–1590.Meduri G.U., Fox R.C., Abou-Shala N. et al. Noninvasive mechanical ventilation via face mask in patients with acute respiratory failure who refused endotracheal intubation. Crit. Care Med. 1994; 22: 1584–1590.Schwartzstein R.M., Lahive K., Pope A. et al. Cold facial stimulation reduces breathlessness induced in normal subjects. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1987; 136: 58–61.Schwartzstein R.M., Lahive K., Pope A. et al. Cold facial stimulation reduces breathlessness induced in normal subjects. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1987; 136: 58–61.Bruera E., MacEachern T., Ripamonti C., Hanson J. Subcutaneous morphine for dyspnea in cancer patients. Ann. Intern. Med. 1993; 119: 906–907.Bruera E., MacEachern T., Ripamonti C., Hanson J. Subcutaneous morphine for dyspnea in cancer patients. Ann. Intern. Med. 1993; 119: 906–907.Cohen M.H., Anderson A.J., Krasnow S.H. et al. Continuous intravenous infusion of morphine for severe dyspnea. South. Med. J. 1991; 84: 229–234.Cohen M.H., Anderson A.J., Krasnow S.H. et al. Continuous intravenous infusion of morphine for severe dyspnea. South. Med. J. 1991; 84: 229–234.Jennings A.L., Davies A.N., Higgins J.P.T., Broadley K. Opioids for the palliation of breathlessness in terminal illness. [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2001; 3. Available from: http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002066/frame.htmlJennings A.L., Davies A.N., Higgins J.P.T., Broadley K. Opioids for the palliation of breathlessness in terminal illness. [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2001; 3. Available from: http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002066/frame.htmlHeffner J.E. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 319–328.Heffner J.E. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 319–328.Farncombe M., Chater S., Gillin A. The use of nebulized opioids for breathlessness: a chart review. Palliat. Med. 1994; 8: 306–312.Farncombe M., Chater S., Gillin A. The use of nebulized opioids for breathlessness: a chart review. Palliat. Med. 1994; 8: 306–312.Polosa R., Simidchiev A., Walters E.H. Nebulized morphine for severe interstitial lung disease [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2002; 3. Available from: http://www.mrw.interscience.-wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002872/frame.htmlPolosa R., Simidchiev A., Walters E.H. Nebulized morphine for severe interstitial lung disease [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2002; 3. Available from: http://www.mrw.interscience.-wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002872/frame.htmlPan C.X., Morrison R.S., Ness J. et al. Complementary and alternative medicine in the management of pain, dyspnea, and nausea and vomiting near the end of life: a systematic review. J. Pain. Symptom. Manage 2000; 20: 374–387.Pan C.X., Morrison R.S., Ness J. et al. Complementary and alternative medicine in the management of pain, dyspnea, and nausea and vomiting near the end of life: a systematic review. J. Pain. Symptom. Manage 2000; 20: 374–387.Aquilina R., Bergero F., Noceti P., De Michelis C. Double blind study with neltenexine vs placebo in patients affected by acute and chronic lung diseases. Minerva Pneumol. 2001; 40: 77–82.Aquilina R., Bergero F., Noceti P., De Michelis C. Double blind study with neltenexine vs placebo in patients affected by acute and chronic lung diseases. Minerva Pneumol. 2001; 40: 77–82.Bruera E., Sweeney C., Willey J. et al. A randomized controlled trial of supplemental oxygen versus air in cancer patients with dyspnea. Palliat. Med. 2003; 17: 659–663.Bruera E., Sweeney C., Willey J. et al. A randomized controlled trial of supplemental oxygen versus air in cancer patients with dyspnea. Palliat. Med. 2003; 17: 659–663.Chan J.D., Treece P.D., Engelberg R.A. et al. Narcotic and benzodiazepine use after withdrawal of life support: association with time to death? Chest 2004; 126: 286–293.Chan J.D., Treece P.D., Engelberg R.A. et al. Narcotic and benzodiazepine use after withdrawal of life support: association with time to death? Chest 2004; 126: 286–293.Bercovitch M., Waller A., Adunsky A. High dose morphine use in the hospice setting: a database survey of patient characteristics and effect on life expectancy. Cancer 1999; 86: 871–877.Bercovitch M., Waller A., Adunsky A. High dose morphine use in the hospice setting: a database survey of patient characteristics and effect on life expectancy. Cancer 1999; 86: 871–877.Sykes N., Thorns A. The use of opioids and sedatives at the end of life. Lancet Oncol. 2003; 4: 312–318.Sykes N., Thorns A. The use of opioids and sedatives at the end of life. Lancet Oncol. 2003; 4: 312–318.Sulmasy D.P., Pellegrino E.D. The rule of double effect: clearing up the double talk. Arch. Intern. Med. 1999; 159: 545–550.Sulmasy D.P., Pellegrino E.D. The rule of double effect: clearing up the double talk. Arch. Intern. Med. 1999; 159: 545–550.Quill T.E., Dresser R., Brock D.W. The rule of double effect: a critique of its role in end-of-life decision making. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 337: 1768–1771.Quill T.E., Dresser R., Brock D.W. The rule of double effect: a critique of its role in end-of-life decision making. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 337: 1768–1771.SUPPORT Principal Investigators. A controlled trial to improve care for seriously ill hospitalized patients. The study to understand prognoses and preferences for out-comes and risks of treatments (SUPPORT). J. A. M. A. 1995; 274: 1591–1598.SUPPORT Principal Investigators. A controlled trial to improve care for seriously ill hospitalized patients. The study to understand prognoses and preferences for out-comes and risks of treatments (SUPPORT). J. A. M. A. 1995; 274: 1591–1598.Field M.J., Cassell C.K., eds. Approaching death: improving care at the end of life. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1997.Field M.J., Cassell C.K., eds. Approaching death: improving care at the end of life. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1997.Foley K.M. Acute and chronic cancer pain syndromes. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 298–316.Foley K.M. Acute and chronic cancer pain syndromes. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 298–316.Myles P.S., Troedel S., Boquest M., Reeves M. The pain visual analog scale: is it linear or nonlinear? Anesth. Analg. 1999; 89: 1517–1520.Myles P.S., Troedel S., Boquest M., Reeves M. The pain visual analog scale: is it linear or nonlinear? Anesth. Analg. 1999; 89: 1517–1520.Dudgeon D.J., Harlos M., Clinch J.J. The Edmonton Symptom Assessment Scale (ESAS) as an audit tool. J. Palliat. Care 1999; 15: 14–19.Dudgeon D.J., Harlos M., Clinch J.J. The Edmonton Symptom Assessment Scale (ESAS) as an audit tool. J. Palliat. Care 1999; 15: 14–19.World Health Organization. Cancer pain relief with a guide to opioid availability, 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1996.World Health Organization. Cancer pain relief with a guide to opioid availability, 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1996.Puntillo K.A. The role of critical care nurses in providing and managing end-of-life care. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 149–164.Puntillo K.A. The role of critical care nurses in providing and managing end-of-life care. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 149–164.Miser A.W., Dothage J.A., Wesley R.A., Miser J.S. The prevalence of pain in a pediatric and young adult cancer population. Pain 1987; 29: 73–83.Miser A.W., Dothage J.A., Wesley R.A., Miser J.S. The prevalence of pain in a pediatric and young adult cancer population. Pain 1987; 29: 73–83.Ljungman G., Gordh T., Sorensen S., Kreuger A. Pain variations during cancer treatment in children: a descriptive survey. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 2000; 17: 211–221.Ljungman G., Gordh T., Sorensen S., Kreuger A. Pain variations during cancer treatment in children: a descriptive survey. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 2000; 17: 211–221.Weisman S.J., Bernstein B., Schechter N.L. Consequences of inadequate analgesia during painful procedures in children. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 1998; 152: 147–149.Weisman S.J., Bernstein B., Schechter N.L. Consequences of inadequate analgesia during painful procedures in children. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 1998; 152: 147–149.World Health Organization. Cancer pain relief and palliative care in children. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1998.World Health Organization. Cancer pain relief and palliative care in children. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1998.Lussier D., Portenoy R.K. Adjuvant analgesics in pain management. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 349–378.Lussier D., Portenoy R.K. Adjuvant analgesics in pain management. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 349–378.Wallenstein D.J., Portenoy R.K. Nonopioid and adjuvant analgesics. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 84–97.Wallenstein D.J., Portenoy R.K. Nonopioid and adjuvant analgesics. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 84–97.Brody H., Campbell M.L., Faber-Langendoen K., Ogle K.S. Withdrawing intensive life-sustaining treatment-recommendations for compassionate clinical management. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 336: 652–657.Brody H., Campbell M.L., Faber-Langendoen K., Ogle K.S. Withdrawing intensive life-sustaining treatment-recommendations for compassionate clinical management. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 336: 652–657.Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Acute pain management: operative or medical procedures and trauma, part 1. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1992; 11: 309–331.Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Acute pain management: operative or medical procedures and trauma, part 1. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1992; 11: 309–331.Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Acute pain management: operative or medical procedures and trauma, part 2. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1992; 11: 391–414.Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Acute pain management: operative or medical procedures and trauma, part 2. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1992; 11: 391–414.World Health Organization. Technical report series № 804: Cancer pain relief and palliative care: report of a WHO expert committee. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1990.World Health Organization. Technical report series № 804: Cancer pain relief and palliative care: report of a WHO expert committee. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1990.Hanks G., Cherny N.I., Fallon M. Opioid analgesic therapy. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 316–341.Hanks G., Cherny N.I., Fallon M. Opioid analgesic therapy. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 316–341.Yang K. Analgesia and sedation. In: Gunn V.L., Nechyba C., Barone M.A., eds. The Harriet lane handbook. 17th ed. Baltimore, MD: CV Mosby; 2002. 1011–1030. American Thoracic Society Documents 925.Yang K. Analgesia and sedation. In: Gunn V.L., Nechyba C., Barone M.A., eds. The Harriet lane handbook. 17th ed. Baltimore, MD: CV Mosby; 2002. 1011–1030. American Thoracic Society Documents 925.Hollman G.A. Analgesia and sedation in pediatric critical care. In: Fuhrman B.P., Zimmerman J.J., eds. Pediatric critical care. St. Louis, MO: CV Mosby; 1998. 1363–1379.Hollman G.A. Analgesia and sedation in pediatric critical care. In: Fuhrman B.P., Zimmerman J.J., eds. Pediatric critical care. St. Louis, MO: CV Mosby; 1998. 1363–1379.Truog R.D., Cist A.F., Brackett S.E. et al. Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: the Ethics Committee of the Society of Critical Care Medicine. Crit. Care Med. 2001; 29: 2332–2348.Truog R.D., Cist A.F., Brackett S.E. et al. Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: the Ethics Committee of the Society of Critical Care Medicine. Crit. Care Med. 2001; 29: 2332–2348.Foley K.M. Pain and symptom control in the dying ICU patient. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 103–125.Foley K.M. Pain and symptom control in the dying ICU patient. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 103–125.American Board of Hospice and PalliativeMedicine. [Internet] [accessed March 10, 2008]. Available from: http://www.abhpm.org/certification/index.htmlAmerican Board of Hospice and PalliativeMedicine. [Internet] [accessed March 10, 2008]. Available from: http://www.abhpm.org/certification/index.htmlAmerican Academy of Hospice and Palliative Medicine. [Internet] [accessed March 10, 2008]. Available from: http://www.aahpm.org/about.htmlAmerican Academy of Hospice and Palliative Medicine. [Internet] [accessed March 10, 2008]. Available from: http://www.aahpm.org/about.htmlCoyle N., Adelhardt J., Foley K.M., Portenoy R.K. Character of terminal illness in the advanced cancer patient: pain and other symptoms during the last four weeks of life. J. Pain. Symptom Manage. 1990; 5: 83–93.Coyle N., Adelhardt J., Foley K.M., Portenoy R.K. Character of terminal illness in the advanced cancer patient: pain and other symptoms during the last four weeks of life. J. Pain. Symptom Manage. 1990; 5: 83–93.Rousseau P. Terminal sedation in the care of dying patients. Arch. Intern. Med. 1996; 156: 1785–1786.Rousseau P. Terminal sedation in the care of dying patients. Arch. Intern. Med. 1996; 156: 1785–1786.Jackson W.C. Palliative sedation vs terminal sedation: what's in a name? Am. J. Hosp. Palliat. Care 2002; 19: 81–82.Jackson W.C. Palliative sedation vs terminal sedation: what's in a name? Am. J. Hosp. Palliat. Care 2002; 19: 81–82.Braun T.C., Hagen N.A., Clark T. Development of a clinical practice guideline for palliative sedation. J. Palliat. Med. 2003; 6: 345–350.Braun T.C., Hagen N.A., Clark T. Development of a clinical practice guideline for palliative sedation. J. Palliat. Med. 2003; 6: 345–350.Rousseau P. Palliative sedation and sleeping before death: a need for clinical guidelines? J. Palliat. Med. 2003; 6: 425–427.Rousseau P. Palliative sedation and sleeping before death: a need for clinical guidelines? J. Palliat. Med. 2003; 6: 425–427.Lo B., Rubenfeld G. Palliative sedation in dying patients: ''We turn to it when everything else hasn't worked.'' J. A. M. A. 2005; 294: 1810–1816.Lo B., Rubenfeld G. Palliative sedation in dying patients: ''We turn to it when everything else hasn't worked.'' J. A. M. A. 2005; 294: 1810–1816.Chater S., Viola R., Paterson J., Jarvis V. Sedation for intractable distress in the dying: a survey of experts. Palliat. Med. 1998; 12: 255–269.Chater S., Viola R., Paterson J., Jarvis V. Sedation for intractable distress in the dying: a survey of experts. Palliat. Med. 1998; 12: 255–269.Rietjens J.A.C., van der Heide A., Vrakking A.M. et al. Physician reports of terminal sedation without hydration or nutrition for patients nearing death in the Netherlands. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004; 141: 178–185.Rietjens J.A.C., van der Heide A., Vrakking A.M. et al. Physician reports of terminal sedation without hydration or nutrition for patients nearing death in the Netherlands. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004; 141: 178–185.Vacco v Quill. 521 U.S. 793 (1997).Vacco v Quill. 521 U.S. 793 (1997).Sulmasy D.P., Ury W.A., Ahronheim J.C. et al. Responding to intractable terminal suffering. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000; 133: 560–561.Sulmasy D.P., Ury W.A., Ahronheim J.C. et al. Responding to intractable terminal suffering. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000; 133: 560–561.Ely E.W., Stephens R.K., Jackson J.C. et al. Current opinions regarding the importance, diagnosis, and management of delirium in the intensive care unit: a survey of 912 healthcare professionals. Crit. Care Med. 2004; 32: 106–112.Ely E.W., Stephens R.K., Jackson J.C. et al. Current opinions regarding the importance, diagnosis, and management of delirium in the intensive care unit: a survey of 912 healthcare professionals. Crit. Care Med. 2004; 32: 106–112.Kress J.P., Hall J.B. Delirium and sedation. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 419–433.Kress J.P., Hall J.B. Delirium and sedation. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 419–433.Kunik M.E., Roundy K., Veazey C. et al. Surprisingly high prevalence of anxiety and depression in chronic breathing disorders. Chest 2005; 127: 1205–1211.Kunik M.E., Roundy K., Veazey C. et al. Surprisingly high prevalence of anxiety and depression in chronic breathing disorders. Chest 2005; 127: 1205–1211.Light R.W., Merrill E.J., Despars J.A. et al. Prevalence of depression and anxiety in patients with COPD: relation-ship to functional capacity. Chest 1985; 87: 35–38.Light R.W., Merrill E.J., Despars J.A. et al. Prevalence of depression and anxiety in patients with COPD: relation-ship to functional capacity. Chest 1985; 87: 35–38.Brenes G.A. Anxiety and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prevalence, impact, and treatment. Psychosom. Med. 2003; 65: 963–970.Brenes G.A. Anxiety and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prevalence, impact, and treatment. Psychosom. Med. 2003; 65: 963–970.Lowe B., Grafe K., Ufer C. et al. Anxiety and depression in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Psychosom. Med. 2004; 66: 831–836.Lowe B., Grafe K., Ufer C. et al. Anxiety and depression in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Psychosom. Med. 2004; 66: 831–836.Chang B., Steimel J., Moller D.R. et al. Depression in sarcoidosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2001; 163: 329–334.Chang B., Steimel J., Moller D.R. et al. Depression in sarcoidosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2001; 163: 329–334.Limbos M.M., Joyce D.P., Chan C.K.N., Kesten S. Psychological functioning and quality of life in lung transplant candidates and recipients. Chest 2000; 118: 408–416.Limbos M.M., Joyce D.P., Chan C.K.N., Kesten S. Psychological functioning and quality of life in lung transplant candidates and recipients. Chest 2000; 118: 408–416.Parekh P.I., Blumenthal J.A., Babyak M.A. et al. Psychiatric disorder and quality of life in patients awaiting lung transplantation. Chest 2003; 124: 1682–1688.Parekh P.I., Blumenthal J.A., Babyak M.A. et al. Psychiatric disorder and quality of life in patients awaiting lung transplantation. Chest 2003; 124: 1682–1688.Cox C.E., Donohue J.F., Brown C.D. et al. Healthrelated quality of life of persons with sarcoidosis. Chest 2004; 125: 997–1004.Cox C.E., Donohue J.F., Brown C.D. et al. Healthrelated quality of life of persons with sarcoidosis. Chest 2004; 125: 997–1004.Bailey P.H. The dyspnea-anxiety-dyspnea cycle-COPD patients' stories of breathlessness: ''It's scary/when you can't breathe.'' Qual. Health Res. 2004; 14: 760–778.Bailey P.H. The dyspnea-anxiety-dyspnea cycle-COPD patients' stories of breathlessness: ''It's scary/when you can't breathe.'' Qual. Health Res. 2004; 14: 760–778.Goodwin R.D., Pine D.S. Respiratory disease and panic attacks among adults in the United States. Chest 2002; 122: 645–650.Goodwin R.D., Pine D.S. Respiratory disease and panic attacks among adults in the United States. Chest 2002; 122: 645–650.Dahlen I., Janson C. Anxiety and depression are related to the outcome of emergency treatment in patients with obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 2002; 122: 1633–1637.Dahlen I., Janson C. Anxiety and depression are related to the outcome of emergency treatment in patients with obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 2002; 122: 1633–1637.Bretscher M., Rummans T., Sloan J. et al. Quality of life in hospice patients: a pilot study. Psychosomatics 1999; 40: 309–313.Bretscher M., Rummans T., Sloan J. et al. Quality of life in hospice patients: a pilot study. Psychosomatics 1999; 40: 309–313.Stapleton R.D., Nielsen E.L., Engelberg R.A. et al. Association of depression and life-sustaining treatment preferences in patients with COPD. Chest 2005; 127: 328–334.Stapleton R.D., Nielsen E.L., Engelberg R.A. et al. Association of depression and life-sustaining treatment preferences in patients with COPD. Chest 2005; 127: 328–334.Douglas S.L., Daly B.J. Caregivers of long-term ventilator patients: physical and psychological outcomes. Chest 2003; 123: 1073–1081.Douglas S.L., Daly B.J. Caregivers of long-term ventilator patients: physical and psychological outcomes. Chest 2003; 123: 1073–1081.Im K.A., Belle S.H., Schulz R. et al. Prevalence and out- comes of caregiving after prolonged (48 hours) mechanical ventilation in the ICU. Chest 2004; 125: 597–606.Im K.A., Belle S.H., Schulz R. et al. Prevalence and out- comes of caregiving after prolonged (48 hours) mechanical ventilation in the ICU. Chest 2004; 125: 597–606.Gordon G.H., Michiels T.M., Mahutte C.K., Light R.W. Effect of desipramine on control of ventilation and depression scores in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Psychiatry Res. 1985; 15: 25–32.Gordon G.H., Michiels T.M., Mahutte C.K., Light R.W. Effect of desipramine on control of ventilation and depression scores in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Psychiatry Res. 1985; 15: 25–32.Popkin M.K., Callies A.L., Mackenzie T.B. The outcome of antidepressant use in the medically ill. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1985; 42: 1160–1163.Popkin M.K., Callies A.L., Mackenzie T.B. The outcome of antidepressant use in the medically ill. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1985; 42: 1160–1163.Borson S., McDonald G.M., Gayle T. et al. Improvement in mood, physical symptoms, and function with nortriptyline for depression in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Psychosomatics 1992; 33: 190–201.Borson S., McDonald G.M., Gayle T. et al. Improvement in mood, physical symptoms, and function with nortriptyline for depression in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Psychosomatics 1992; 33: 190–201.Ballenger J.C., Davidson J.R., Lecrubier Y. et al. Consensus statement on panic disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1998; 59: 47–54.Ballenger J.C., Davidson J.R., Lecrubier Y. et al. Consensus statement on panic disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1998; 59: 47–54.Stiefel F., Fainsinger R., Bruera E. Acute confusional states in patients with advanced cancer. J. Pain. Symptom. Manage. 1992; 7: 94–98.Stiefel F., Fainsinger R., Bruera E. Acute confusional states in patients with advanced cancer. J. Pain. Symptom. Manage. 1992; 7: 94–98.Ely E.W., Shintani A., Truman B. et al. Delirium as a predictor of mortality in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit. J. A. M. A. 2004; 291: 1753–1762.Ely E.W., Shintani A., Truman B. et al. Delirium as a predictor of mortality in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit. J. A. M. A. 2004; 291: 1753–1762.Mazzocato C., Stiefel F., Buclin T., Berney A. Psychopharmacology in supportive care of cancer: a review for the clinician: II. Neuroleptics. Support Care Cancer 2000; 8: 89–97.Mazzocato C., Stiefel F., Buclin T., Berney A. Psychopharmacology in supportive care of cancer: a review for the clinician: II. Neuroleptics. Support Care Cancer 2000; 8: 89–97.Ingram J.M., Caraceni A. Delirium. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 555–576.Ingram J.M., Caraceni A. Delirium. In: Berger A.M., Portenoy R.K., Weissman D.E., eds. Principles and practice of palliative care and supportive oncology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002. 555–576.Nutt D.J., Ballenger J.C., Sheehan D., Wittchen H.U. Generalized anxiety disorder: comorbidity, comparative biology and treatment. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002; 5: 315–325.Nutt D.J., Ballenger J.C., Sheehan D., Wittchen H.U. Generalized anxiety disorder: comorbidity, comparative biology and treatment. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002; 5: 315–325.Ballenger J.C., Davidson J.R., Lecrubier Y. et al. International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. Consensus statement on depression, anxiety, and oncology. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2001; 62: 64–67.Ballenger J.C., Davidson J.R., Lecrubier Y. et al. International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. Consensus statement on depression, anxiety, and oncology. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2001; 62: 64–67.Depression Guideline Panel. Depression in primary care: treatment of major depression: clinical practice guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research; 1993. AHCPR Publication No. 93–0551.Depression Guideline Panel. Depression in primary care: treatment of major depression: clinical practice guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research; 1993. AHCPR Publication No. 93–0551.Schulberg H.C., Katon W., Simon G.E., Rush A.J. Treating major depression in primary care practice: an update of the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research practice guidelines. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1998; 55: 1121–1127.Schulberg H.C., Katon W., Simon G.E., Rush A.J. Treating major depression in primary care practice: an update of the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research practice guidelines. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1998; 55: 1121–1127.Ballenger J.C., Davidson J.R., Lecrubier Y. et al. Consensus statement on generalized anxiety disorder from the international consensus group on depression and anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2001; 62: 53–58.Ballenger J.C., Davidson J.R., Lecrubier Y. et al. Consensus statement on generalized anxiety disorder from the international consensus group on depression and anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2001; 62: 53–58.Miaskowski C., Cleary J., Burney R. et al. Guideline for the management of cancer pain in adults and children. Glenview, IL: American Pain Society; 2005. APS clinical practice guidelines series, no 3.Miaskowski C., Cleary J., Burney R. et al. Guideline for the management of cancer pain in adults and children. Glenview, IL: American Pain Society; 2005. APS clinical practice guidelines series, no 3.Post S.G., Puchalski C.M., Larson D.B. Physicians and patient spirituality: professional boundaries, competency, and ethics. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000; 132: 578–583.Post S.G., Puchalski C.M., Larson D.B. Physicians and patient spirituality: professional boundaries, competency, and ethics. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000; 132: 578–583.Cassell E.J. The nature of suffering and the goals of medicine. N. Engl. J. Med. 1982; 306: 639–645.Cassell E.J. The nature of suffering and the goals of medicine. N. Engl. J. Med. 1982; 306: 639–645.Cassell E.J. Diagnosing suffering: a perspective. Ann. Intern. Med. 1999; 131: 531–534.Cassell E.J. Diagnosing suffering: a perspective. Ann. Intern. Med. 1999; 131: 531–534.Cassell E.J. The nature of suffering and the goals of medicine, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004.Cassell E.J. The nature of suffering and the goals of medicine, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004.Himelstein B.P., Hilden J.M., Boldt A.M., Weissman D. Pediatric palliative care. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 350: 1752–1762.Himelstein B.P., Hilden J.M., Boldt A.M., Weissman D. Pediatric palliative care. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 350: 1752–1762.Rushton C.H. Ethics and palliative care in pediatrics. Am. J. Nurs 2004; 104: 54–63.Rushton C.H. Ethics and palliative care in pediatrics. Am. J. Nurs 2004; 104: 54–63.Markowitz A.J., McPhee S.J. Caring for the child with cancer at the close of life. J.A.M.A. 2005; 293: 1382.Markowitz A.J., McPhee S.J. Caring for the child with cancer at the close of life. J.A.M.A. 2005; 293: 1382.Contro N.A., Larson J., Scofield S. et al. Hospital staff and family perspectives regarding quality of pediatric palliative care. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 1248–1252.Contro N.A., Larson J., Scofield S. et al. Hospital staff and family perspectives regarding quality of pediatric palliative care. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 1248–1252.Carter B.S., Howenstein M., Gilmer M.J. et al. Circumstances surrounding the deaths of hospitalized children: opportunities for pediatric palliative care. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 361–366.Carter B.S., Howenstein M., Gilmer M.J. et al. Circumstances surrounding the deaths of hospitalized children: opportunities for pediatric palliative care. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 361–366.Harris M.B. Palliative care in children with cancer: which child and when? J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2004; 32: 144–149.Harris M.B. Palliative care in children with cancer: which child and when? J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2004; 32: 144–149.Gothelf D., Cohen I.J. Pediatric palliative care. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 301–302.Gothelf D., Cohen I.J. Pediatric palliative care. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 301–302.Prendergast T.J., Claessens M.T., Luce J.M. A national survey of end-oflife care for critically ill patients. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998; 158: 1163–1167.Prendergast T.J., Claessens M.T., Luce J.M. A national survey of end-oflife care for critically ill patients. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998; 158: 1163–1167.American Thoracic Society. Home mechanical ventilation of pediatric patients. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1990; 141: 258–259.American Thoracic Society. Home mechanical ventilation of pediatric patients. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1990; 141: 258–259.Prendergast T.J., Puntillo K.A. Withdrawal of life support: intensive caring at the end of life. J. A. M. A. 2002; 288: 2732–2740.Prendergast T.J., Puntillo K.A. Withdrawal of life support: intensive caring at the end of life. J. A. M. A. 2002; 288: 2732–2740.Lilly C.M., De Meo D.L., Sonna L.A. et al. An intensive communication intervention for the critically ill. Am. J. Med. 2000; 109: 469–475.Lilly C.M., De Meo D.L., Sonna L.A. et al. An intensive communication intervention for the critically ill. Am. J. Med. 2000; 109: 469–475.Lilly C.M., Sonna L.A., Haley K.J., Massaro A.F. Intensive communication: four-year follow-up from a clinical practice study. Crit. Care Med. 2003; 31: S394–S399.Lilly C.M., Sonna L.A., Haley K.J., Massaro A.F. Intensive communication: four-year follow-up from a clinical practice study. Crit. Care Med. 2003; 31: S394–S399.Mitchell I., Nakielna E., Tullis E., Adair C. Cystic fibrosis: end-stage care in Canada. Chest 2000; 118: 80–84.Mitchell I., Nakielna E., Tullis E., Adair C. Cystic fibrosis: end-stage care in Canada. Chest 2000; 118: 80–84.Fisher R., Ury W., Patton B. Getting to yes: negotiating agreement without giving in, 2nd ed. New York: Penguin Books; 1991.Fisher R., Ury W., Patton B. Getting to yes: negotiating agreement without giving in, 2nd ed. New York: Penguin Books; 1991.Danis M. The roles of ethnicity, race, religion, and socioeconomic status in end-of-life care in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R, Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 215–229.Danis M. The roles of ethnicity, race, religion, and socioeconomic status in end-of-life care in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R, Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 215–229.Crawley L.M., Marshall P.A., Koenig B.A. Respecting cultural differences at the end of life. In: Snyder L., Quill T.E., eds. Physician's guide to end-of-life care. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine; 2001. 35–55.Crawley L.M., Marshall P.A., Koenig B.A. Respecting cultural differences at the end of life. In: Snyder L., Quill T.E., eds. Physician's guide to end-of-life care. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine; 2001. 35–55.Lo B., Ruston D., Kates L.W. et al. Working Group on Religious and Spiritual Issues at the End of Life. Discussing religious and spiritual issues at the end of life: a practical guide for physicians. J. A. M. A. 2002; 287: 749–754.Lo B., Ruston D., Kates L.W. et al. Working Group on Religious and Spiritual Issues at the End of Life. Discussing religious and spiritual issues at the end of life: a practical guide for physicians. J. A. M. A. 2002; 287: 749–754.Miles S.H. The role of the physician in sacred end-of-life rituals in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 207–211.Miles S.H. The role of the physician in sacred end-of-life rituals in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 207–211.Robinson W.M. Special concerns for infants and children. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 337–347.Robinson W.M. Special concerns for infants and children. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 337–347.Faber-Langendoen K. The clinical management of dying patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a survey of physician practice. Chest 1994; 106: 880–888.Faber-Langendoen K. The clinical management of dying patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a survey of physician practice. Chest 1994; 106: 880–888.Faber-Langendoen K., Bartels D.M. Process of forgoing life-sustaining treatment in a university hospital: an empirical study. Crit. Care Med. 1992; 20: 570–577.Faber-Langendoen K., Bartels D.M. Process of forgoing life-sustaining treatment in a university hospital: an empirical study. Crit. Care Med. 1992; 20: 570–577.Cook D., Rocker G., Marshall J. et al. Level of Care Study Investigators; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Withdrawal of mechanical ventilation in anticipation of death in the intensive care unit. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003; 349: 1123–1132.Cook D., Rocker G., Marshall J. et al. Level of Care Study Investigators; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Withdrawal of mechanical ventilation in anticipation of death in the intensive care unit. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003; 349: 1123–1132.Grenvik A. ''Terminal weaning'': discontinuance of life-support therapy in the terminally ill patient. Crit. Care Med. 1983; 11: 394–395.Grenvik A. ''Terminal weaning'': discontinuance of life-support therapy in the terminally ill patient. Crit. Care Med. 1983; 11: 394–395.Gilligan T., RaffinT.A. Withdrawing life support: extubation and prolonged terminal weans are inappropriate. Crit. Care Med. 1996; 24: 352–353.Gilligan T., RaffinT.A. Withdrawing life support: extubation and prolonged terminal weans are inappropriate. Crit. Care Med. 1996; 24: 352–353.Sprung C.L., Cohen S.L., Sjokvist P. et al. End-of-life practices in European intensive care units: the Ethicus study. J. A. M. A. 2003; 290: 790–797.Sprung C.L., Cohen S.L., Sjokvist P. et al. End-of-life practices in European intensive care units: the Ethicus study. J. A. M. A. 2003; 290: 790–797.Wildiers H., Menten J. Death rattle: prevalence, prevention and treatment. J. Pain. Symptom. Manage. 2002; 23: 310–317.Wildiers H., Menten J. Death rattle: prevalence, prevention and treatment. J. Pain. Symptom. Manage. 2002; 23: 310–317.Clark J.J., Larsen M.P., Culley L.L. et al. Incidence of agonal respirations in sudden cardiac arrest. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1992; 21: 1464–1467.Clark J.J., Larsen M.P., Culley L.L. et al. Incidence of agonal respirations in sudden cardiac arrest. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1992; 21: 1464–1467.Nuland S.B. How we die: reflections on life's final chapter. New York: Knopf; 1994.Nuland S.B. How we die: reflections on life's final chapter. New York: Knopf; 1994.Shannon S.E. Helping families prepare for and cope with a death in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 165–182.Shannon S.E. Helping families prepare for and cope with a death in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 165–182.Kichhoff K.T., Song M.-K., Kehl K. Caring for the family of the critically ill patient. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 453–466.Kichhoff K.T., Song M.-K., Kehl K. Caring for the family of the critically ill patient. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 453–466.Bedell S.E., Cadenhead K., Graboys T.B. The doctor's letter of condolence. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001; 344: 1162–1164.Bedell S.E., Cadenhead K., Graboys T.B. The doctor's letter of condolence. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001; 344: 1162–1164.Pasnau R.O., Fawzy F.I., Fawzy N. Role of the physician in bereavement. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 1987; 10: 109–120.Pasnau R.O., Fawzy F.I., Fawzy N. Role of the physician in bereavement. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 1987; 10: 109–120.Lautrette A., Darmon M., Megarbane B. et al. A communication strategy and brochure for relatives of patients dying in the ICU. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007; 356: 469–478.Lautrette A., Darmon M., Megarbane B. et al. A communication strategy and brochure for relatives of patients dying in the ICU. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007; 356: 469–478.Lilly C.M., Daly B.J. The healing power of listening in the ICU. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007; 356: 513–515.Lilly C.M., Daly B.J. The healing power of listening in the ICU. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007; 356: 513–515.Curtis J.R., Patrick D.L., Shannon S.E. et al. The family conference as a focus to improve communication about end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: opportunities for improvement. Crit. Care Med. 2001; 29: N26–N33.Curtis J.R., Patrick D.L., Shannon S.E. et al. The family conference as a focus to improve communication about end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: opportunities for improvement. Crit. Care Med. 2001; 29: N26–N33.Irvine P. The attending at the funeral. N. Engl. J. Med. 1985; 312: 1704–1705.Irvine P. The attending at the funeral. N. Engl. J. Med. 1985; 312: 1704–1705.Doka K.J., ed. Children mourning, mourning children. Washington, DC: Hospice Foundation of America; 1995.Doka K.J., ed. Children mourning, mourning children. Washington, DC: Hospice Foundation of America; 1995.Block S.D. Helping the clinician cope with death in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 183–191.Block S.D. Helping the clinician cope with death in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 183–191.Knaus W.A., Wagner D.P., Draper E.A. The APACHE III prognostic system: risk prediction of hospital mortality for critically ill hospitalized adults. Chest 1991; 100: 1619–1636.Knaus W.A., Wagner D.P., Draper E.A. The APACHE III prognostic system: risk prediction of hospital mortality for critically ill hospitalized adults. Chest 1991; 100: 1619–1636.Kollef M.H. Outcome prediction in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 39–57.Kollef M.H. Outcome prediction in the ICU. In: Curtis J.R., Rubenfeld G.D., eds. Managing death in the ICU: the transition from cure to comfort. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. 39–57.Barnato A.E., Angus D.C. Value and role of intensive care unit outcome predictions models in end-of-life decision making. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 345–362.Barnato A.E., Angus D.C. Value and role of intensive care unit outcome predictions models in end-of-life decision making. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 345–362.Levy M. Caring for the caregiver. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 541–547.Levy M. Caring for the caregiver. Crit. Care Clin. 2004; 20: 541–547.Vachon M.L.S. The stress of professional caregivers. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 992–129.Vachon M.L.S. The stress of professional caregivers. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 992–129.Rushton C.H. The other side of caring: caregiver suffering. In: Carter B.S., Levetown M., eds. Palliative care for infants, children and adolescents: a practical handbook. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2004. 220–243.Rushton C.H. The other side of caring: caregiver suffering. In: Carter B.S., Levetown M., eds. Palliative care for infants, children and adolescents: a practical handbook. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2004. 220–243.Panke J.T., Ferrell B.R. Emotional problems in the family. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 985–992.Panke J.T., Ferrell B.R. Emotional problems in the family. In: Doyle D., Hanks G.W., Cherny N., Calman K.C., eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 985–992.Clarke E.B., Curtis J.R., Luce J.M. et al. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Critical Care End-Of-Life Peer Workgroup Members. Quality indicators for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit. Crit. Care Med. 2003; 31: 2255–2262.Clarke E.B., Curtis J.R., Luce J.M. et al. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Critical Care End-Of-Life Peer Workgroup Members. Quality indicators for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit. Crit. Care Med. 2003; 31: 2255–2262.Selecky P.A., Eliasson A.H., Hall R.I. et al. ACCP Ethics Committee. Palliative and end-of-life care for patients with cardiopulmonary diseases: American College of Chest Physicians position statement. Chest 2005; 128: 3599–3610.Selecky P.A., Eliasson A.H., Hall R.I. et al. ACCP Ethics Committee. Palliative and end-of-life care for patients with cardiopulmonary diseases: American College of Chest Physicians position statement. Chest 2005; 128: 3599–3610.American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. Designing an agenda for the nursing profession on end-of-life care: report of the nursing leadership consortium on end-of-life care-1999. [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.aacn.org/pdfLibra.NSF/Files/EOLFinalReport/$file/EOLRF.pdfAmerican Association of Critical-Care Nurses. Designing an agenda for the nursing profession on end-of-life care: report of the nursing leadership consortium on end-of-life care-1999. [Internet] [accessed March 6, 2006]. Available from: http://www.aacn.org/pdfLibra.NSF/Files/EOLFinalReport/$file/EOLRF.pdfAnonymous. Palliative care: one vision, one voice-1999. [Internet] [accessed January 9, 2006]. Available from: http://www.palliativecarenursing.net/Anonymous. Palliative care: one vision, one voice-1999. [Internet] [accessed January 9, 2006]. Available from: http://www.palliativecarenursing.net/Rocker G., Dunbar S. Withholding or withdrawal of life support: the Canadian Critical Care Society position paper. J. Palliat. Care 2000; 16: S53–S62.Rocker G., Dunbar S. Withholding or withdrawal of life support: the Canadian Critical Care Society position paper. J. Palliat. Care 2000; 16: S53–S62.American Medical Association. AMA statement on end-of-life care-2005. [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Available from: http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/7567.htmlAmerican Medical Association. AMA statement on end-of-life care-2005. [Internet] [accessed March 7, 2006]. Available from: http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/7567.htmlSnyder L., Leffler C.; for the Ethics and Human Rights Committee American College of Physicians. Ethics manual, 5th ed. Ann. Intern. Med. 2005; 142: 560–582.Snyder L., Leffler C.; for the Ethics and Human Rights Committee American College of Physicians. Ethics manual, 5th ed. Ann. Intern. Med. 2005; 142: 560–582.Toce S., Leuthner S.R., Dokken D. The high-risk newborn. In: Carter B.S., Levetown M., eds. Palliative care for infants, children and adolescents. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2004. 247–291. American Thoracic Society Documents 927.Toce S., Leuthner S.R., Dokken D. The high-risk newborn. In: Carter B.S., Levetown M., eds. Palliative care for infants, children and adolescents. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2004. 247–291. American Thoracic Society Documents 927.
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.